Expert knowledge regularly informs personal and civic-decision making. To decide which experts to trust, lay publics —including policymakers and experts from other domains—use different epistemic and non-epistemic cues. Epistemic cues such as honesty, like when experts are forthcoming about conflicts of interest, are a popular way of understanding how people evaluate and decide which experts to trust. However, many other epistemic cues, like the evidence supporting information from experts, are inaccessible to lay publics. Therefore, lay publics simultaneously use second-order social (...) cues in their environment to inform decisions to trust. These second-order social cues, or ‘social indicators of trust’, prevent lay publics from having to trust blindly. Social indicators of trust therefore inform lay publics’ epistemic vigilance, or constant low level-monitoring of testimony from experts. This special issue examines the nature, acquisition and application of social indicators of trust for scientific experts and institutions. It also raises questions about the types of trust asked of lay publics and challenges traditional normative assumptions about the relationship between science and lay publics through study of attitudes, values, and experiences. The issue descriptively re-examines the structure of institutions, their role and methods for ferrying information, as well as how social indicators operate in times of crisis. In this collection of works, we bridge history, science, philosophy of science, science and technology studies, science communication and social epistemology, to broaden the discourse on trust in experts and more accurately reflect the imperfect yet indispensable endeavour that trusting is. (shrink)

Progress in the last few decades in what is widely known as “Chaos Theory” has plainly advanced understanding in the several sciences it has been applied to. But the manner in which such progress has been achieved raises important questions about scientific method and, indeed, about the very objectives and character of science. In this presentation, I hope to engage my audience in a discussion of several of these important new topics.

It is usual to identify initial conditions of classical dynamical systems with mathematical real numbers. However, almost all real numbers contain an infinite amount of information. I argue that a finite volume of space can’t contain more than a finite amount of information, hence that the mathematical real numbers are not physically relevant. Moreover, a better terminology for the so-called real numbers is “random numbers”, as their series of bits are truly random. I propose an alternative classical mechanics, which is (...) empirically equivalent to classical mechanics, but uses only finite-information numbers. This alternative classical mechanics is non-deterministic, despite the use of deterministic equations, in a way similar to quantum theory. Interestingly, both alternative classical mechanics and quantum theories can be supplemented by additional variables in such a way that the supplemented theory is deterministic. Most physicists straightforwardly supplement classical theory with real numbers to which they attribute physical existence, while most physicists reject Bohmian mechanics as supplemented quantum theory, arguing that Bohmian positions have no physical reality. (shrink)

When you type the word “serendipity” in a word-processor application such as Microsoft Word, the autocorrection engine suggests you choose other words like “luck” or “fate”. This correcting act turns out to be incorrect. However, it points to the reality that serendipity is not a familiar English word and can be misunderstood easily. Serendipity is a very much scientific concept as it has been found useful in numerous scientific discoveries, pharmaceutical innovations, and numerous humankind’s technical and technological advances. Therefore, there (...) have been many books written around the concept. So why do we need this additional book? This is not just another book about serendipity. It has evolved from the Editor’s question lingering for a decade after finishing his widely cited article (coauthored with Prof. Nancy K. Napier of Boise State University, ID, USA) “Serendipity as a strategic advantage?” in T. Wilkinson’s edited volume Strategic Management in the 21st Century, published by Praeger. The Editor and contributing authors have tried to achieve the following in this title. Demystifying the Serendipity Myth The phenomenon of serendipity has always been thought of as a “miracle”. It is the mystery of human innovation and one of the ultimate secrets of our society. But serendipity is not just a lucky coincidence nor any hidden conspiracy. This book explores the science of the information process behind this seemingly miraculous phenomenon. It connects human society with nature, going back to the root of our existence and looking at the flame of survival to discover the harmony in making creativity. Presenting the nuts and bolts of being an adventurer of science The authors present their conceptual investigations into serendipity’s nature and its mechanism by examining interesting real events and stories. The content is thought-provoking, and readers are led to question and explore their own life stories and problems along the journey of reading this book. Catching an elusive high-value target requires great strategies and efforts. But there are no dark secrets here because this is the “way of nature” – how we humans have always strived for innovation without realizing the blueprints behind such processes. Unlike other books on serendipity, this book will show you that a powerful “secret” is closer than you think. Delivering practical uses for different audiences By understanding the conditionality and survival drivers of serendipity, individuals or organizations can make better decisions on creating the right environment to facilitate the encounter and attainment of this valuable phenomenon. For scientists: With clear explanations of the information processes underlying serendipity, flexible theoretical frameworks of mindsponge and the 3D principle of creativity, researchers are provided with the tools they need to dig deeper into their own fields of study and find practical applications, be it psychology, economics, sociology, or anything that involves innovation (which is, in fact, every scientific discipline). For curious casual readers: Everybody needs innovation to make breakthroughs or spice up one’s life. If you think great ideas come to people randomly from an unknown fairy place, this book will convince you otherwise without taking away that awe and wonder. But above all, you will know how to become more creative, scientifically and straightforwardly, with no snake oil and no weird tricks. For ambitious business people: The flame that brought about great successes throughout human history is within you. But you can only use it if you understand it. While others wait for serendipity to come, you will be able to actively hunt for those precious moments. As it has always been: the best hunters triumph, not the passive wanderers. And in this age of information chaos, finding the golden fruits is not easy. Those from information technology know this problem well, and this book is the treasure map that they have been seeking to navigate that stormy ocean looking for jewels. Like a kingfisher tracking its prey through the water, waiting to gracefully strike, with serendipity, a person seizes the prize of creativity amid the chaos of life. ¤ ¤ ¤ Official introduction: The book explores the nature, underlying causes, and the information processing mechanism of serendipity. It proposes that natural or social survival demands drive serendipity, and serendipity is conditional on the environment and the mindset, on both individual and collective levels. From Darwin's evolution theory to Sun Tzu's war tactics, major innovations throughout human history are unified by this key concept. In the rapidly changing world, information is abundant but rather chaotic. The adaptive power of serendipity allows people to notice treasures within this wild sea, but only for those who understand how it works. To increase the probability of encountering and attaining serendipity, one should employ the mindsponge mechanism and the 3D process of creativity, for without these frameworks, serendipity is truly an elusive target. The book also discusses methods to build environments and cultures rich in navigational and useful information to maximize the chance of finding and capitalizing on serendipity. As a skill, serendipity has a resemblance to how kingfishers observe and hunt their prey. (shrink)

continent. 1.1 : 3-13. / 0/ – Introduction I want to propose, as a trajectory into the philosophically weird, an absurd theoretical claim and pursue it, or perhaps more accurately, construct it as I point to it, collecting the ground work behind me like the Perpetual Train from China Mieville's Iron Council which puts down track as it moves reclaiming it along the way. The strange trajectory is the following: Kant's critical philosophy and much of continental philosophy which has followed, (...) has been a defense against horror and madness. Kant's prohibition on speculative metaphysics such as dogmatic metaphysics and transcendental realism, on thinking beyond the imposition of transcendental and moral constraints, has been challenged by numerous figures proceeding him. One of the more interesting critiques of Kant comes from the mad black Deleuzianism of Nick Land stating, “Kant’s critical philosophy is the most elaborate fit of panic in the history of the Earth.” And while Alain Badiou would certainly be opposed to the libidinal investments of Land's Deleuzo-Guattarian thought, he is likewise critical of Kant's normative thought-bureaucracies: Kant is the one author for whom I cannot feel any kinship. Everything in him exasperates me, above all his legalism—always asking Quid Juris? Or ‘Haven’t you crossed the limit?’—combined, as in today’s United States, with a religiosity that is all the more dismal in that it is both omnipresent and vague. The critical machinery he set up has enduringly poisoned philosophy, while giving great succour to the academy, which loves nothing more than to rap the knuckles of the overambitious [….] That is how I understand the truth of Monique David-Menard’s reflections on the properly psychotic origins of Kantianism. I am persuaded that the whole of the critical enterprise is set up to to shield against the tempting symptom represented by the seer Swedenborg, or against ‘diseases of the head’, as Kant puts it. An entire nexus of the limits of reason and philosophy are set up here, namely that the critical philosophy not only defends thought from madness, philosophy from madness, and philosophy from itself, but that philosophy following the advent of the critical enterprise philosophy becomes auto-vampiric; feeding on itself to support the academy. Following Francois Laruelle's non-philosophical indictment of philosophy, we could go one step further and say that philosophy operates on the material of what is philosophizable and not the material of the external world. [1] Beyond this, the Kantian scheme of nestling human thinking between our limited empirical powers and transcendental guarantees of categorical coherence, forms of thinking which stretch beyond either appear illegitimate, thereby liquefying both pre-critical metaphysics and the ravings of the mad in the same critical acid. In rejecting the Kantian apparatus we are left with two entities – an unsure relation of thought to reality where thought is susceptible to internal and external breakdown and a reality with an uncertain sense of stability. These two strands will be pursued, against the sane-seal of post-Kantian philosophy by engaging the work of weird fiction authors H.P. Lovecraft and Thomas Ligotti. The absolute inhumanism of the formers universe will be used to describe a Shoggothic Materialism while the dream worlds of the latter will articulate the mad speculation of a Ventriloquil Idealism. But first we must address the relation of philosophy to madness as well as philosophy to weird fiction. /1/ – Philosophy and Madness There is nothing that the madness of men invents which is not either nature made manifest or nature restored. Michel Foucault. Madness and Civilization. The moment I doubt whether an event that I recall actually took place, I bring the suspicion of madness upon myself: unless I am uncertain as to whether it was not a mere dream. Arthur Schopenhauer. The World as Will and Idea, Vol. 3. Madness is commonly thought of as moving through several well known cultural-historical shifts from madness as a demonic or otherwise theological force, to rationalization, to medicalization psychiatric and otherwise. Foucault's Madness and Civilization is well known for orientating madness as a form of exclusionary social control which operated by demarcating madness from reason. Yet Foucault points to the possibility of madness as the necessity of nature at least prior to the crushing weight of the church. Kant’s philosophy as a response to madness is grounded by his humanizing of madness itself. As Adrian Johnston points out in the early pages of Time Driven pre-Kantian madness meant humans were seized by demonic or angelic forces whereas Kantian madness became one of being too human. Madness becomes internalized, the external demonic forces become flaws of the individual mind. Foucault argues that, while madness is de-demonized it is also dehumanized during the Renaissance, as madmen become creatures neither diabolic nor totally human reduced to the zero degree of humanity. It is immediately clear why for Kant, speculative metaphysics must be curbed – with the problem of internal madness and without the external safeguards of transcendental conditions, there is nothing to formally separate the speculative capacities for metaphysical diagnosis from the mad ramblings of the insane mind – both equally fall outside the realm of practicality and quotidian experience. David-Menard's work is particularly useful in diagnosing the relation of thought and madness in Kant's texts. David-Menard argues that in Kant's relatively unknown “An Essay on the Maladies of the Mind” as well as his later discussion of the Seer of Swedenborg, that Kant formulates madness primarily in terms of sensory upheaval or other hallucinatory theaters. She writes: “madness is an organization of thought. It is made possible by the ambiguity of the normal relation between the imaginary and the perceived, whether this pertains to the order of sensation or to the relations between our ideas” Kant's fascination with the Seer forces Kant between the pincers of “aesthetic reconciliation” – namely melancholic withdrawal – and “a philosophical invention” – namely the critical project. Deleuze and Guattari's schizoanalysis is a combination and reversal of Kant's split, where an aesthetic over engagement with the world entails prolific conceptual invention. Their embrace of madness, however, is of course itself conceptual despite all their rhizomatic maneuvers. Though they move with the energy of madness, Deleuze and Guattari save the capacity of thought from the fangs of insanity by imbuing materiality itself with the capacity for thought. Or, as Ray Brassier puts it, “Deleuze insists, it is necessary to absolutize the immanence of this world in such a way as to dissolve the transcendent disjunction between things as we know them and as they are in themselves”. That is, whereas Kant relied on the faculty of judgment to divide representation from objectivity Deleuze attempts to flatten the whole economy beneath the juggernaut of ontological univocity. Speculation, as a particularly useful form of madness, might fall close to Deleuze and Guattari’s shaping of philosophy into a concept producing machine but is different in that it is potentially self destructive – less reliant on the stability of its own concepts and more adherent to exposing a particular horrifying swath of reality. Speculative madness is always a potential disaster in that it acknowledges little more than its own speculative power with the hope that the gibbering of at least a handful of hysterical brains will be useful. Pre-critical metaphysics amounts to madness, though this may be because the world itself is mad while new attempts at speculative metaphysics, at post-Kantian pre-critical metaphysics, are well aware of our own madness. Without the sobriety of the principle of sufficient reason we have a world of neon madness: “we would have to conceive what our life would be if all the movements of the earth, all the noises of the earth, all the smells, the tastes, all the light – of the earth and elsewhere, came to us in a moment, in an instant – like an atrocious screaming tumult of things”. Speculative thought may be participatory in the screaming tumult of the world or, worse yet, may produce its spectral double. Against theology or reason or simply commonsense, the speculative becomes heretical. Speculation, as the cognitive extension of the horrorific sublime should be met with melancholic detachment. Whereas Kant's theoretical invention, or productivity of thought, is self -sabotaging, since the advent of the critical project is a productivity of thought which then delimits the engine of thought at large either in dogmatic gestures or non-systematizable empirical wondrousness. The former is celebrated by the fiction of Thomas Ligotti whereas the latter is espoused by the tales of H.P. Lovecraft. /2/ – Weird Fiction and Philosophy. Supernatural horror, in all its eerie constructions, enables a reader to taste treats inconsistent with his personal welfare. Thomas Ligotti Songs of a Dead Dreamer. I choose weird stories because they suit my inclination best—one of my strongest and most persistent wishes being to achieve,momentarily, the illusion of some strange suspension or violation of the galling limitations of time, space, and natural law which forever imprison us and frustrate our curiosity about the infinite cosmic spaces beyond the radius of our sight and analysis H.P. Lovecraft. “Notes on Writing Weird Fiction” Lovecraft states that his creation of a story is to suspend natural law yet, at the same time, he indexes the tenuousness of such laws, suggesting the vast possibilities of the cosmic. The tension that Lovecraft sets up between his own fictions and the universe or nature is reproduced within his fictions in the common theme of the unreliable narrator; unreliable precisely because they are either mad or what they have witnessed questions the bounds of material reality. In “The Call of Cthulhu” Lovecraft writes: The most merciful thing in the world, I think, is the inability of the human mind to correlate all its contents. We live on a placid island of ignorance in the midst of black seas of infinity, and it was not meant that we should voyage far. The sciences, each straining in its own direction, have hitherto harmed us little; but some day the piecing together of dissociated knowledge will open up such terrifying vistas of reality, and of our frightful position therein, that we shall either go mad from the revelation or flee from the deadly light into the peace and safety of a new dark age. Despite Lovecraft's invocations of illusion, he is not claiming that his fantastic creations such as the Old Ones are supernatural but, following Joshi, are only ever supernormal. One can immediately see that instead of nullifying realism Lovecraft in fact opens up the real to an unbearable degree. In various letters and non-fictional statements Lovecraft espoused strictly materialist tenets, ones which he borrowed from Hugh Elliot namely the uniformity of law, the denial of teleology and the denial of non-material existence. Lovecraft seeks to explore the possibilities of such a universe by piling horror upon horror until the fragile brain which attempts to grasp it fractures. This may be why philosophy has largely ignored weird fiction – while Deleuze and Guattari mark the turn towards weird fiction and Lovecraft in particular, with the precursors to speculative realism as well as contemporary related thinkers have begun to view Lovecraft as making philosophical contributions. Lovecraft's own relation to philosophy is largely critical while celebrating Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. This relationship of Lovecraft to philosophy and philosophy to Lovecraft is coupled with Lovecraft's habit of mercilessly destroying the philosopher and the figure of the academic more generally in his work, a destruction which is both an epistemological destruction and an ontological destruction. Thomas Ligotti's weird fiction which he has designated as a kind of “confrontational escapism” might be best described in the following quote from one of his shortstories, “The human phenomenon is but the sum of densely coiled layers of illusion each of which winds itself on the supreme insanity. That there are persons of any kind when all there can be is mindless mirrors laughing and screaming as they parade about in an endless dream”. Whereas Lovecraft's weirdness draws predominantly from the abyssal depths of the uncharted universe, Ligotti's existential horror focuses on the awful proliferation of meaningless surfaces that is, the banal and every day function of representation. In an interview, Ligotti states: We don't even know what the world is like except through our sense organs, which are provably inadequate. It's no less the case with our brains. Our whole lives are motored along by forces we cannot know and perceptions that are faulty. We sometimes hear people say that they're not feeling themselves. Well, who or what do they feel like then? This is not to say that Ligotti sees nothing beneath the surface but that there is only darkness or blackness behind it, whether that surface is on the cosmological level or the personal. By addressing the implicit and explicit philosophical issues in Ligotti's work we will see that his nightmarish take on reality is a form of malevolent idealism, an idealism which is grounded in a real, albeit dark and obscure materiality. If Ligotti's horrors ultimately circle around mad perceptions which degrade the subject, it takes aim at the vast majority of the focus of continental philosophy. While Lovecraft's acidic materialism clearly assaults any romantic concept of being from the outside, Ligotti attacks consciousness from the inside: Just a little doubt slipped into the mind, a little trickle of suspicion in the bloodstream, and all those eyes of ours, one by one, open up to the world and see its horror [...] Not even the solar brilliance of a summer day will harbor you from horror. For horror eats the light and digests it into darkness. Clearly, the weird fiction of Lovecraft and Ligotti amount to a anti-anthrocentric onslaught against the ramparts of correlationist continental philosophy. /3/ – Shoggothic Materialism or the Formless Formless protoplasm able to mock and reflect all forms and organs and processes—viscous agglutinations of bubbling cells—rubbery fifteen-foot spheroids infinitely plastic and ductile—slaves of suggestion, builders of cities—more and more sullen, more and more intelligent, more and more amphibious, more and more imitative—Great God! What madness made even those blasphemous Old Ones willing to use and to carve such things? H.P. Lovecraft. “At the Mountains of Madness” On the other hand, affirming that the universe resembles nothing and is only formless amounts to saying that the universe is something like a spider or spit. Georges Bataille. “Formless”. The Shoggoths feature most prominently in H.P. Lovecraft's shortstory “At the Mountains of Madness” where they are described in the following manner: It was a terrible, indescribable thing vaster than any subway train – a shapeless congeries of protoplasmic bubbles, faintly self -luminous, and with myriads of temporary eyes forming and un-forming as pustules of greenish light all over the tunnel-filling front that bore down upon us, crushing the frantic penguins and slithering over the glistening floor that it and its kind had swept so evilly free of all litter. The term is a litmus test for materialism itself as the Shoggoth is an amorphous creature. The Shoggoths were living digging machines bio engineered by the Elder Things, and their protoplasmic bodies being formed into various tools by their hypnotic powers. The Shoggoths eventually became self aware and rose up against their masters in an ultimately failed rebellion. After the Elder Ones retreated into the oceans leaving the Shoggoths to roam the frozen wastes of the Antarctic. The onto-genesis of the Shoggoths and their gross materiality, index the horrifyingly deep time of the earth a concept near and dear to Lovecraft's formulation of horror as well as the fear of intelligences far beyond, and far before, the ascent of humankind on earth and elsewhere. The sickly amorphous nature of the Shoggoths invade materialism at large, where while materiality is unmistakably real ie not discursive, psychological, or otherwise overly subjectivist, it questions the relation of materialism to life. As Eugene Thacker writes: The Shoggoths or Elder Things do not even share the same reality with the human beings who encounter them—and yet this encounter takes place, though in a strange no-place that is neither quite that of the phenomenal world of the human subject or the noumenal world of an external reality. Amorphous yet definitively material beings are a constant in Lovecraft's tales. In his tale “The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadatth” Lovecraft describes Azathoth as, “that shocking final peril which gibbers unmentionably outside the ordered universe,” that, “last amorphous blight of nethermost confusion which blashphemes and bubbles at the centre of all infinity,” who, “gnaws hungrily in inconceivable, unlighted chambers beyond time”. Azathoth's name may have multiple origins but the most striking is the alchemy term azoth which is both a cohesive agent and a acidic creation pointing back to the generative and the decayed. The indistinction of generation and degradation materially mirrors the blur between the natural and the unnatural as well as life and non-life. Lovecraft speaks of the tension between the natural and the unnatural is his short story “The Unnameable.” He writes, “if the psychic emanations of human creatures be grotesque distortions, what coherent representation could express or portray so gibbous and infamous a nebulousity as the spectre of a malign, chaotic perversion, itself a morbid blasphemy against Nature?”. Lovecraft explores exactly the tension outlined at the beginning of this chapter, between life and thought. At the end of his short tale Lovecraft compounds the problem as the unnameable is described as “a gelatin—a slime—yet it had shapes, a thousand shapes of horror beyond all memory”. Deleuze suggests that becoming-animal is operative throughout Lovecraft's work, where narrators feel themselves reeling at their becoming non-human or of being the anomalous or of becoming atomized. Following Eugene Thacker however, it may be far more accurate to say that Lovecraft's tales exhibit not a becoming-animal but a becoming-creature. Where the monstrous breaks the purportedly fixed laws of nature, the creature is far more ontologically ambiguous. The nameless thing is an altogether different horizon for thought. The creature is either less than animal or more than animal – its becoming is too strange for animal categories and indexes the slow march of thought towards the bizarre. This strangeness is, as aways, some indefinite swirling in the category of immanence and becoming. Bataille begins “The Labyrinth” with the assertion that being, to continue to be, is becoming. More becoming means more being hence the assertion that Bataille's barking dog is more than the sponge. This would mean that the Shoggotth is altogether too much being, too much material in the materialism. Bataille suggests that there is an immanence between the eater and the eaten, across the species and never within them. That is, despite the chaotic storm of immanence there must remain some capacity to distinguish the gradients of becoming without reliance upon, or at least total dependence upon, the powers of intellection to parse the universe into recognizable bits, properly digestible factoids. That is, if we undo Deleuze's aforementioned valorization of sense which, for his variation of materialism, performed the work of the transcendental, but refuse to reinstate Kant's transcendental disjunction between thing and appearance, then it must be a quality of becoming-as-being itself which can account for the discernible nature of things by sense. In an interview with Peter Gratton, Jane Bennett formulates the problem thusly: What is this strange systematicity proper to a world of Becoming? What, for example, initiates this congealing that will undo itself? Is it possible to identify phases within this formativity, plateaus of differentiation? If so, do the phases/plateaus follow a temporal sequence? Or, does the process of formation inside Becoming require us to theorize a non-chronological kind of time? I think that your student’s question: “How can we account for something like iterable structures in an assemblage theory?” is exactly the right question. Philosophy has erred too far on the side of the subject in the subject-object relation and has furthermore, lost the very weirdness of the non-human. Beyond this, the madness of thought need not override. /4/ - Ventriloquial Idealism or the Externality of Thought My aim is the opposite of Lovecraft's. He had an appreciation for natural scenery on earth and wanted to reach beyond the visible in the universe. I have no appreciation for natural scenery and want the objective universe to be a reflection of a character. Thomas Ligotti. “Devotees of Decay and Desolation.” Unless life is a dream, nothing makes sense. For as a reality, it is a rank failure [….] Horror is more real than we are. Thomas Ligotti. “Professor Nobody's Little Lectures on Supernatural Horror”. Thomas Ligotti's tales are rife with mannequins, puppets, and other brainless entities which of replace the valorized subject of philosophy – that of the free thinking human being. His tales such as “The Dream of the Manikin” aim to destroy the rootedness of consciousness. James Trafford has connected the anti-egoism of Ligotti to Thomas Metzinger – where the self is at best an illusion and we plead desperately for someone else to acknowledge that we are real. Trafford has stated it thus, “Life is played out as an inescapable puppet show, an endless dream in which the puppets are generally unaware that they are trapped within a mesmeric dance of whose mechanisms they know nothing and over which they have no control”. An absolute materialism, for Ligotti, implies an alienation of the idea which leads to a ventriloquil idealism. As Ligotti notes in an interview, “the fiasco and nightmare of existence, the particular fiasco and nightmare of human existence, the sense that people are puppets of powers they cannot comprehend, etc.” And then further elaborates that,“[a]ssuming that anything has to exist, my perfect world would be one in which everyone has experienced the annulment of his or her ego. That is, our consciousness of ourselves as unique individuals would entirely disappear”. The externality of the idea leads to the unfortunate consequence of consciousness eating at itself through horror which, for Ligotti, is more real than reality and goes beyond horror-as-affect. Beyond this, taking together with the unreality of life and the ventriloquizing of subjectivity, Ligotti's thought becomes an idealism in which thought itself is alien and ultimately horrifying. The role of human thought and the relation of non-relation of horror to thought is not completely clear in Ligotti's The Conspiracy Against the Human Race. Ligotti argues in his The Conspiracy Against the Human Race,that the advent of thought is a mistake of nature and that horror is being in the sense that horror results from knowing too much. Yet, at the same time, Ligotti seems to suggest that thought separates us from nature whereas, for Lovecraft, thought is far less privileged – mind is just another manifestation of the vital principal, it is just another materialization of energy. In his brilliant “Prospects for Post-Copernican Dogmatism” Iain Grant rallies against the negative definition of dogmatism and the transcendental, and suggests that negatively defining both over-focuses on conditions of access and subjectivism at the expense of the real or nature. With Schelling, who is Grant's champion against the subjectivist bastions of both Fichte and Kant, Ligotti's idealism could be taken as a transcendental realism following from an ontological realism. Yet the transcendental status of Ligotti's thought move towards a treatment of the transcendental which may threaten to leave beyond its realist ground. Ligotti states: Belief in the supernatural is only superstition. That said, a sense of the supernatural, as Conrad evidenced in Heart of Darkness, must be admitted if one's inclination is to go to the limits of horror. It is the sense of what should not be- the sense of being ravaged by the impossible. Phenomenally speaking, the super-natural may be regarded as the metaphysical counterpart of insanity, a transcendental correlative of a mind that has been driven mad. Again, Ligotti equates madness with thought, qualifying both as supernatural while remaining less emphatic about the metaphysical dimensions of horror. The question becomes one of how exactly the hallucinatory realm of the ideal relates to the black churning matter of Lovecraft's chaos of elementary particles. In his tale “I Have a Special Plan for This World” Ligotti formulates thus: A: There is no grand scheme of things. B: If there were a grand scheme of things, the fact – the fact – that we are not equipped to perceive it, either by natural or supernatural means, is a nightmarish obscenity. C: The very notion of a grand scheme of things is a nightmarish obscenity. Here Ligotti is not discounting metaphysics but implying that if it does exist the fact that we are phenomenologically ill-equipped to perceive that it is nightmarish. For Ligotti, nightmare and horror occur within the circuit of consciousness whereas for Lovecraft the relation between reality and mind is less productive on the side of mind. It is easier to ascertain how the Kantian philosophy is a defense against the diseases of the head as Kant armors his critical enterprise from too much of the world and too much of the mind. The weird fiction of both Lovecraft and Ligotti demonstrates that there is too much of both feeding into one another in a way that corrodes the Kantian schema throughly, breaking it down into a dead but still ontologically potentiated nigredo. The haunting, terrifying fact of Ligotti's idealism is that the transcendental motion which brought thought to matter, while throughly material and naturalized, brings with it the horror that thought cannot be undone without ending the material that bears it either locally or completely. Thought comes from an elsewhere and an elsewhen being-in-thought. The unthinkable outside thought is as maddening as the unthought engine of thought itself within thought which doesn't exist except for the mind, the rotting décor of the brain. /5/ - Hyperstitional Transcendental Paranoia or Self -Expelled Thought Weird fiction has been given some direct treatment in philosophy in the mad black Deleuzianism of Nick Land. Nick Land along with others in the 1990s created the Cyber Culture Research Unit as well as the research group Hyperstition. The now defunct hyperstitional website, an outgrowth of the Cyber Culture Research Unit, defined hyperstition in the following fourfold: 1-Element of effective culture that makes itself real. 2-Fictional quantity functional as a time-traveling device. 3-Coincidence intensifier. 4-Call to the Old Ones. The distinctively Lovecraftian character of hyperstition is hard to miss as is its Deleuzo-Guattarian roots. In the opening pages of A Thousand Plateaus Deleuze and Guattari write, “We have been criticized for over-quoting literary authors. But when one writes, the only question is which other machine the literary machine can be plugged into”. The indisinction of literature and philosophy mirrors the mess of being and knowing as post-correlationist philosophy, where philosophy tries to make itself real where literature, especially the weird, aims itself at the brain-circuit of horror. The texts of both Lovecraft and Ligotti work through horror as epistemological plasticity meeting with proximity as well as the deep time of Lovecraft and the glacially slow time of paranoia in Ligotti. Against Deleuze, and following Brassier, we cannot allow the time of consciousness, the Bergsonian time of the duree, to override natural time, but instead acknowledge that it is an unfortunate fact of existence as a thinking being. Horror-time, the time of consciousness, with all its punctuated moments and drawn out terrors, cannot compare to the deep time of non-existence both in the unreachable past and the unknown future. The crystalline cogs of Kant's account of experience as the leading light for the possibility of metaphysics must be throughly obliterated. His gloss of experience in Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics could not be more sterile: Experience consists of intuitions, which belong to the sensibility, and of judgments, which are entirely a work of the understanding. But the judgments which the understanding makes entirely out of sensuous intuitions are far from being judgments of experience. For in the one case the judgment connects only the perceptions as they are given in sensuous intuition [....] Experience consists in the synthetic connection of appearances in consciousness, so far as this connection is necessary. Here it is difficult to dismiss the queasiness that Kant's legalism induces upon sight for both Badiou and David-Menard. Kant's thought becomes, as Foucault says when reflecting on Sade's text in relation to nature, “the savage abolition of itself”. For Badiou, Kant's philosophy simply closes off too much of the outside, freezing the world of thought in an all too limited formalism. Critical philosophy is simply the systematized quarantine on future thinking, on thinking which would threaten the formalism which artificially grants thought its own coherency in the face of madness. Even the becoming-mad of Deleuze, while escaping the rumbling ground, makes grounds for itself, mad grounds but grounds which are thinkable in their affect. The field of effects allows for Deleuze's aesthetic and radical empiricism, in which effects and/or occasions make up the material of the world to be thought as a chaosmosis of simulacra. Given a critique of an empiricism of aesthetics, of the image, it may be difficult to justify an attack on Kantian formalism with the madness of literature, which does not aim to make itself real but which we may attempt to make real. That is, how do Lovecraft's and Ligotti's materials, as materials for philosophy to work on, differ from either the operative formalisms of Kant or the implicitly formalized images of Deleuzian empiricism? It is simply that such texts do not aim to make themselves real, and make claims to the real which are more alien to us than familiar, which is why their horror is immediately more trustworthy. This is the madness which Blanchot discusses in The Infinite Conversation through Cervantes and his knight – the madness of book-life, of the perverse unity of literature and life a discussion which culminates in the discussion of one of the weird's masters, that of Kafka. The text is the knowing of madness, since madness, in its moment of becoming-more-mad, cannot be frozen in place but by the solidifications of externalizing production. This is why Foucault ends his famous study with works of art. Furthermore extilligence, the ability to export the products of our maligned brains, is the companion of the attempts to export, or discover the possibility of intelligences outside of our heads, in order for philosophy to survive the solar catastrophe. To borrow again from Deleuze, writing is inseparable from becoming. The mistake is to believe that madness is reabsorbed by extilligence, by great works, or that it could be exorcised by the expelling of thought into the inorganic or differently organic. Going out of our heads does not guarantee we will no longer mean we cannot still go out of our minds. This is simply because of the outside, of matter, or force, or energy, or thing-in-itself, or Schopenhauerian Will. In Lovecraft’s “The Music of Erich Zahn” an “impoverished student of metaphysics” becomes intrigued by strange viol music coming from above his room. After meeting the musician the student discovers that each night he plays frantic music at a window in order to keep some horridness at bay, some “impenetrable darkness with chaos and pandemonium”. The aesthetic defenses provided by the well trained brain can bear the hex of matter for so long, the specter of unalterability within it which too many minds obliterate, collapsing everything before the thought of thought as thinkable or at least noetically mutable on our own terms. Transcendental paranoia is the concurrent nightmare and promise of Paul Humphrey's work, of being literally out of our minds. It is the gothic counterpart of thinking non-conceptually but also of thinking never belonging to any instance of purportedly solid being. As Bataille stated, “At the boundary of that which escapes cohesion, he who reflects within cohesion realizes there is no longer any room for him” Thought is immaterial only to the degree that it is inhuman, it is a power that tries, always with failure, to ascertain its own genesis. Philosophy, if it can truly return to the great outdoors, if it can leave behind the dead loop of the human skull, must recognize not only the non-priority of human thought, but that thought never belongs to the brain that thinks it, thought comes from somewhere else. To return to the train image from the beginning “a locomotive rolling on the surface of the earth is the image of continuous metamorphosis” this is the problem of thought, and of thinking thought, of being no longer able to isolate thought, with only a thought-formed structure. [1] One of the central tenets of Francois Laruelle's non-philosophy is that philosophy has traditionally operated on material already presupposed as thinkable instead of trying to think the real in itself. Philosophy, according to Laruelle, remains fixated on transcendental synthesis which shatters immanence into an empirical datum and an a prori factum which are then fused by a third thing such as the ego. For a critical account of Laruelle's non-philosophy see Ray Brassier's Nihil Unbound. (shrink)

...If, in some places, backward science determines the remaining period by the lack of optimism only by the number 123456789, then our progressive science expands it to 987654321, which is eight times more advanced than theirs. However, due to the inherent caution of scientists, both sides do not specify the measuring unit of reference — year, day, hour or minute are meant. Leonid Leonov. Collected Op. in ten volumes. Volume ten. M.: IHL, 1984, p.583. -/- The modern men being as (...) a rule is proceeding in three relatively autonomous, but immanently coexisting, and each penetrating dialectically through other, and each contesting even cruelly with other, and each more or less dominating on other, differently in various societies, worlds: the first one of the barbarity, the second one the culture, the third one the civilization... Barbarity is the mode of coexistence of autonomous human societies based on the unlimited will to act so as subject wants to do without any limitations of his activities... Culture is the mode of coexistence of autonomous human societies based on the most ancient testaments, customs, traditions etc of the highestly sacrified appearence... Civilisation is the mode of coexistence of autonomous human societies based on the reasoned or legitimated by social contracts, by profits, by expediency and so more constitutions, institutions etc... -/- Andrei Melnikov-Pechersky in his epic "In the Woods" says that there was a movement among the Old Believers in Russia, or a current that proclaimed Kostroma the new and, it seems, the only true Jerusalem, in an apocalyptic sense, of course, which in its spiritual scale was probably not inferior to the Bogomils, shakers, Mormons, or else and the whole Reformation in potential. In Western Europe, every more or less convex nuance of the history of a state or region (even if it is a small San Marino) is overgrown with almost a dozen institutions, not always state ones, by the way, in which almost every sneeze and step of very ambivalent historical subjects in a broad sense is studied. Especially in the young, but very pretentious America of the United States, which embodies all world justice. In our country, for example, even many leading humanitarian specialists do not realize the spiritual value of the Ipatievsky MONASTERY. The Russian writer Boris Shiryaev, who died quite a long time ago and in a very far abroad, devoted a special part of his documentary and artistic epic of wanderings "The Inextinguishable Lampada" to an entertaining and instructive, tragic fate of a kind of village monarchy in some Villages of the Kostroma province (I could not identify the area, and, frankly, I did not really try) in the early years The Soviet government. At the same time, all Russians learn about the French emperor Napoleon almost with their mother's milk how many percent of cyanide potassium was found in his hair, they reflect on Lermontov's "Airship" (probably, just not to "memorize" the imposed "Borodino" by heart). The events, of course, are incomparable, but the fact is significant. The outstanding national artist (if not to say a thinker of the Chesnyakov level) Grigory Pavlovich Kusochkin was glorified wherever, in whatever catalogues he was not included. Paris, London, New York, St. Petersburg, Moscow... To look at some smear of luminaries like Picasso or Modigliani, international tourist routes are organized in the restaurant toilet using the finest marketing technologies, and we did not even know Grigory Pavlovich by sight until, thank God, a series of TV shows on all Russian channels was dedicated to him in one gulp. Why is this happening? Is it a consequence of poverty or the result of the conscious policy of the ruling elite of the country and the world? The regions of the Kostroma Region are Austria, Switzerland, Bavaria, Armenia, Moldova, and Georgia... Georgia! I served in the army there. In this small but very great country, judging even by the appearance of its President Shevardnadze, although it is smaller than the Kostroma region, there are so many different, but Georgian-speaking peoples! Kakhetians, Meskhetians, Imereti, Iveretians, Mingrelians, Khevsurs... Adjarians (mostly Georgian-speaking Muslims) even have their own autonomy. And some peoples are not Georgian—speaking at all — South Ossetians, Abkhazians, Kurds, Armenians, Greeks, even Assyrians. In the Kostroma Region, and in any Russian "province" — not much less: there are plenty of the same Georgians or Armenians everywhere, quite moderate, loyal, and so on. Having, as a rule, their own officially registered associations within the framework of cultural autonomy. Well done! And Israel! He is the only one with all his "illegal" (and I am for the fact that every nation knows better where its ancestral lands are) territories half the size of the Kostroma region. The total number of Jews worldwide, according to the "Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary" in 1987, is about 14 million. Meanwhile, the fate of Israel is being preoccupied (it is very instructive how he achieved this!) all the united nations of the world. In the Kostroma Region and its diaspora, it seems to everyone, and especially to its semi-migrant, Varangian leadership. I don't care if they build a public atomic bomb here in the form of a nuclear power plant or not. Because they do not know the value of this land, the greatness of its spirit. Kostroma is a holy land. I will immediately make a reservation that by Kostroma I mean not only the modern region, but the entire area that has ever historically been associated with Kostroma. The USSR is also a part of the great historical Russia. In this sense, even the entire era of the Russian Romanov Empire is the Kostroma region. Or: many toponymic objects of our native land are called mysteriously beautiful: Sharya, Shunga, Shekshema, Sholezhka, - we need to find out what kind of peoples — and where are they now? — we left such euphonious archetypal combinations, because these are our Kostromsky peoples, these are our Kostroma people. Or, say, the classic of American and world sociology Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin writes in his autobiographical scientific novel "The Long Way" that he studied at the Khrenovskaya (what a strong word!) teachers' seminary of Kostroma province, but in an administrative row for propaganda activities, gendarmes were taken by sledge to the prison of the city of Kineshma - is this not a fact for Kostroma, and primarily for him, local history, although Kineshma has long been attributed to the Ivanovo region, and Pitirim Alexandrovich is buried on the other side of the planet?! I have not the slightest doubt that Kostroma provided spiritual food, gave birth to and nurtured a huge intellectual diaspora with extremely valuable material on a national, global scale. And this is both in direct and indirect order, in the form of a chain reaction. Apparently, it is easy for an intelligent person to grow up in Kostroma, but it is impossible to live, and somewhere on the contrary. Therefore, it is not surprising that the geneticist academician D. K. Belyaev, who was born in the village of Protasov near Nerekhta, very close to Kostroma, glorified Moscow and Siberia with his discoveries and practical results, which immeasurably enriched the Soviet state treasury with foreign exchange income from the sale of the most valuable fur grown according to the biotechnology developed by him in a much shorter time than it usually turns out in nature. And in Kostroma, most likely, few people know who he is and what he is famous for. I will focus in more detail on one of the aspects of his great life. This happened back in the so-called pre-Perestroika times. In a series of his speeches, Dmitry Konstantinovich, based on the results of his and colleagues' research, emphasized, in his opinion, the determining role of the biological factor in shaping the content of human essence, of course, only in a philosophical, conceptual aspect. For some reason, this was opposed by a geneticist, as they say, persecuted at one time by the "senile" in selectionism (including human nature) by the Michurino-Lysenkoists, academician N. P. Dubinin, which personally remains incomprehensible to me until now. With a grateful curtsey to Academician Dubinin and his point of view, the famous French humanist, member of the Politburo of the French Communist Party Lucien Sav appeared on the pages of the Communist magazine. The material was clearly titled: "Problems are not only scientific, but also political." He very indecently attributed the views of academician Belyaev to "a reactionary ideology that tries to put genetics at its service, and more broadly, biology, in order to present all kinds of social inequalities of all kinds as inherent in nature itself"(1). I would like to see any ideology that does not try to "put this or that at its service," much less something worthwhile... A little later, the editorial of the Communist hit the "biologizers", and soon Dmitry Konstantinovich was gone. In short, it is only on the example of our fellow countrymen that you can write interesting, world-class essays on science and its history, but instead our scientists should fit their global potencies into a page and a half (good yet. if not entirely at their own expense), and then for at least three years to guess whether they will be published or not. Now it no longer surprises me how at one time, when, after reading the listener card I filled out, the sweetest girl from the IPKPON office at USU congratulated me for something. It turned out that the dean of the Faculty of Philosophy of USU, doctor, professor, Honored Scientist, and now academician Konstantin Niko-laevich Lyubutin is a countryman, Kostromsky, or rather Manturovsky by origin, as I write below in the notes — we are Kostromendors. To him, my fellow citizen in the most subtle micropatriotic dimensions, I owe a lot in my professional and social development, even in survival. Because that's how it often turns out: you can be born here, sometimes you can live here... It's very hard. Maybe the Kostroma origin of an outstanding Russian historian of philosophy, organizer of science and education, educator and friend of a galaxy of people devoted to the Motherland and the cause is not a great milestone in the history of the region, but name me at least a dozen Russian cities on the scale of Kostroma, from where such intellectual ones would come out into the world and light luminaries like ours. No matter who you take from the world significance of the pillars of national (and world, and foreign, - even the great Rabbi of Lubavitcher spent three years in exile in a Campfire, — I learned from some foreign voices) history, literature, culture in general, technology, science and so on - you will always find someone, which is very directly related to Kostroma. Pushkin, Lermontov, Gorky. Alexander Nikolaevich Ostrovsky, Pisarev, Uspensky, Katenin, Florensky, Savrasov, Kustodiev, Dyagilev, Mikhalkov, Alexander Alexandrovich Zinoviev; writers, artists, entrepreneurs, revolutionaries, inventors, politicians... In some world-famous for its classic Russian provincialism, Kologriv has been storing, figuratively speaking, unique sketches, if not of Leo-Nardo da Vinci himself, then certainly of his school, almost since the seventeenth century. And not only that. Nevertheless, the well-known Chukhloma to the Fatherland, in addition to thinkers of the rank of Rozanov and Zinoviev (where should domestic philosophers mature and not be born, if not in Chukhloma, Manturov or Khrenknowswhere?), gave an actor of amazing, national, originality — Mikhail Pugovkin, who can not be confused with anyone, a role that no one will repeat. (shrink)

⦿ In my dissertation I introduce, motivate and take the first steps in the implementation of, the project of naturalising modal metaphysics: the transformation of the field into a chapter of the philosophy of science rather than speculative, autonomous metaphysics. -/- ⦿ In the introduction, I explain the concept of naturalisation that I apply throughout the dissertation, which I argue to be an improvement on Ladyman and Ross' proposal for naturalised metaphysics. I also object to Williamson's proposal that modal metaphysics (...) --- or some view in the area --- is already a quasi-scientific discipline. -/- ⦿ Recently, some philosophers have argued that the notion of metaphysical modality is as ill defined as to be of little theoretical utility. In the second chapter I intend to contribute to such skepticism. First, I observe that each of the proposed marks of the concept, except for factivity, is highly controversial; thus, its logical structure is deeply obscure. With the failure of the "first principles" approach, I examine the paradigmatic intended applications of the concept, and argue that each makes it a device for a very specific and controversial project: a device, therefore, for which a naturalist will find no use for. I conclude that there is no well-defined or theoretically useful notion of objective necessity other than logical or physical necessity, and I suggest that naturalising modal metaphysics can provide more stable methodological foundations. -/- ⦿ In the third chapter I answer a possible objection against the in-principle viability of the project: that the concept of metaphysical modality cannot be understood through the philosophical analysis of any scientific theory, since metaphysical necessity "transcends'' natural necessity, and science only deals with the latter. I argue that the most important arguments for this transcendence thesis fail or face problems that, as of today, remain unsolved. -/- ⦿ Call the idea that science doesn't need modality, "demodalism''. Demodalism is a first step in a naturalistic argument for modal antirealism. In the fourth chapter I examine six versions of demodalism to explain why a family of formalisms, that I call "spaces of possibility'', are (i) used in a quasi-ubiquitous way in mathematised sciences (I provide examples from theoretical computer science to microeconomics), (ii) scientifically interpreted in modal terms, and (iii) used for at least six important tasks: (1) defining laws and theories; (2) defining important concepts from different sciences (I give several examples); (3) making essential classifications; (4) providing different types of explanations; (5) providing the connection between theory and statistics, and (6) understanding the transition between a theory and its successor (as is the case with quantisation). -/- ⦿ In fifth chapter I propose and defend a naturalised modal ontology. This is a realism about modal structure: my realism about constraints. The modal structure of a system are the relationships between its possible states and between its possible states and those of other systems. It is given by the plurality of restrictions to which said system is subject. A constraint is a factor that explains the impossibility of a class of states; I explain this concept further. First, I defend my point of view by rejecting some of its main rivals: constructive empiricism, Humean conventionalism, and wave function realism, as they fail to make sense of quantum chaos. This is because the field requires the notion of objective modal structure, and the mentioned views have trouble explaining the modal facts of quantum dynamics. Then, I argue that constraint realism supersedes these views in the context of Bohm's standard theory and mechanics, and underpins the study of quantum chaos. Finally, I consider and reject two possible problems for my point of view. -/- ⦿ A central concern of modal metaphysicians has been to understand the logical system that best characterises necessity. In the sixth chapter I intend to recover the logical project applied to my naturalistic modal metaphysics. Scientists and philosophers of science accept different degrees of physical necessity, ranging from purely mathematically necessary facts that restrict physical behaviour, to kinetic principles, to particular dynamical constraints. I argue that this motivates a multimodal approach to modal logic, and that the time dependence of dynamics motivates a logic of historical necessity. I propose multimodal propositional (classical) logics for Bohmian mechanics and the Everettian theory of many divergent worlds, and I close with a criticism of Williamson's approach to the logic of state spaces of dynamic systems. (shrink)

Edmund Burke’s political philosophy is generally known as the theoretical foundation of Western conservatism. In his intellectual elaboration, society is an organic complex organized in many stratified social classes. But who has the right to lead the community towards the common good? Burke’s answer to that question is: the natural aristocracy. Being the society «a clause in the great primeval contract of eternal society» – so writes Burke –, all creatures are «each in their appointed place». And the group destined (...) to lead the whole is represented by the natural aristocracy. However, this aristocracy shouldn’t be entirely confused with the big landowners and with the traditional nobility; rather, Burke’s vision is founded over a classical concept based on virtue and wisdom, and the natural aristocrats are described as «those who are virtute et honore majores». Hence, the aristocracy of birth and wealth is only a part of it — and every civil society will develop a natural aristocracy, or else fall into chaos and subversion. (shrink)

``People say again and again that philosophy doesn´t really progress, that we are still occupied with the same philosophical problems as were the Greeks. But the people who say this don´t understand why is has to be so. It is because our language has remained the same and keeps seducing us into asking the same questions. As long as there continues to be a verb´to be´that looks as if it functions in the same way as´to eatánd´to drink´, as long as (...) we still have the adjectives´identical´,´true´,´false´,´possible´, as long as we continue to talk of a river of time, of an expanse of space, etc., etc., people will keep stumbling over the same puzzling difficulties and find themselves staring at something which no explanation seems capable of clearing up. And what´s more, this satisfies a longing for the transcendent, because, insofar as people think they can seèthe limits of human understanding´, they believe of course that they can see beyond these.`` ´ This quote is from Ludwig Wittgenstein who redefined philosophy some 70 years ago (but most people have yet to find this out). Dennett, though he has been a philosopher for some 40 years, is one them. It is also curious that both he and his prime antagonist, John Searle, studied under famous Wittgensteinians (Searle with John Austin, Dennett with Gilbert Ryle) but Searle got the point and Dennett did not. Dennett is a hard determinist (though he trys to sneak reality in the back door), and perhaps this is due to Ryle, whose famous book´The Concept of Mind´(1949) continues to be reprinted. That book did a great job of exorcising the ghost but it left the machine. Dennett enjoys making the mistakes Wittgenstein, Ryle (and many others since) have exposed in detail. Our use of the words consciousness, choice, freedom, intention, particle, thinking, determines, wave, cause, happened, event(and so on endlessly) are rarely a source of confusion but as soon as we leave normal life and enter philosophy(and any discussion detached from the environment in which language evolved) chaos reigns. Like most Dennet lacks a coherent framework-which Searle has called the logical structure of rationality. I have expanded on this considerably since I wrote this review and my recent articles show in detail what is wrong with Dennet's approach to philosophy. Let me end with another quote from Wittgenstein--´Ambition is the death of thought´. -/- Those wishing a comprehensive up to date account of Wittgenstein, Searle and their analysis of behavior from the modern two systems view may consult my article The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language as Revealed in Wittgenstein and Searle (2016). Those interested in all my writings in their most recent versions may download from this site my e-book ‘Philosophy, Human Nature and the Collapse of Civilization Michael Starks (2016)- Articles and Reviews 2006-2016’ by Michael Starks First Ed. 662p (2016). -/- All of my papers and books have now been published in revised versions both in ebooks and in printed books. -/- Talking Monkeys: Philosophy, Psychology, Science, Religion and Politics on a Doomed Planet - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) https://www.amazon.com/dp/B071HVC7YP. -/- The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle--Articles and Reviews 2006-2016 (2017) https://www.amazon.com/dp/B071P1RP1B. -/- Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st century: Philosophy, Human Nature and the Collapse of Civilization - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0711R5LGX . (shrink)

COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL DOS ANIMAIS OBJETIVO O estudante explicará a conduta sexual de fêmeas e machos de diferentes espécies domésticas para detectar a fase de receptividade sexual, com a finalidade de programar de maneira adequada a monta ou a inseminação artificial. A observação da conduta sexual dos animais é indispensável para o sucesso da estação reprodutiva em uma determinada propriedade. Logo, o estudante obterá o alicerce necessário sobre os pontos teóricos e práticos a serem observados para a seleção dos animais aptos (...) para a reprodução, além dos meios de identificação comportamental dos animais no que se refere a atividade cíclica das fêmeas. • _____INTRODUÇÃO O comportamento sexual característico de fêmeas e machos devem-se, por um lado, ao ambiente endócrino do organismo e, por outro, a uma influência da aprendizagem obtida ao longo da vida. Este comportamento é indispensável para alcançar a cópula em um momento apropriado, a fim de alcançar uma fertilização que culmina com a gestação. Conhecer as características do comportamento reprodutivo das diferentes espécies domésticas é de grande utilidade para poder determinar o momento ideal de serviço nas fêmeas, bem como para avaliar a capacidade reprodutiva dos machos; também serve para detectar algumas alterações que modificam o comportamento sexual normal. No caso das fêmeas, o comportamento sexual distintivo está limitado ao estágio do ciclo estral conhecido como estro, enquanto nos machos, a atividade reprodutiva pode acontecer a qualquer momento. Nas fêmeas e nos machos das espécies sazonais, o comportamento sexual é suprimido ou diminuído, respectivamente, durante as épocas de anestro. Existem espécies em que certas mudanças observáveis no comportamento ou na genitália são suficientes para identificar as fêmeas no cio. Outras espécies, entretanto, requerem necessariamente a presença do macho para poder expressar seu comportamento estral e somente quando ele estiver presente será possível estabelecer o momento em que a fêmea está em estro. Em determinadas propriedades, o macho reprodutor somente é utilizado para cobrir as fêmeas em cio; o trabalho de detecção das fêmeas que pode ser desgastante para o reprodutor é realizado por um outro macho conhecido como rufião. Esse animal não cobre as fêmeas, apenas é utilizado para a observação de fêmeas aptas à monta. É comum que, quando se fala em comportamento sexual, seja dada mais importância à fêmea do que ao macho, pois seu comportamento é aquele que se limita a períodos curtos, além de ser aquele que permitirá a cópula; mas os machos também têm uma participação muito ativa, pois além de atrair e detectar as fêmeas no cio, devem ser capazes de realizar a cópula com sucesso. Através da conduta sexual dos machos é observada sua eficiência reprodutiva, isto é, se ele possui a capacidade de detecção e cobrição padrão esperada de um reprodutor. Se as observações forem negativas, o ideal é a realização de um exame andrológico. • _____ETAPAS DO COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL O comportamento sexual feminino possui três finalidades: atrair o macho (atração) por meio de sinais e da busca ativa do mesmo, estimular o macho para realizar a cópula (proceptividade), ao qual alcançam exibindo-se ante o mesmo, e facilitar a cópula (receptividade) ao permanecer imóvel, realizando a lordose (figura 1) e o movimento lateral da cauda. Figura 1: reflexo de lordose na vaca e na gata, ambas em cio. Os machos também apresentam três estágios comportamentais; na primeira, procuram ativamente as fêmeas, realizam atividades de cortejo, se aproximam da fêmea e se estimulam sexualmente (fase pré-copulatória) (figura 2). Assim que detectam uma fêmea no cio, realizam a monta, que inclui movimentos pélvicos, penetração e ejaculação (fase copulatória). No final, eles exibem um estágio de descanso e desinteresse pela fêmea no cio, conhecido como estágio pós-copulador ou refratário. Figura 2: comportamento sexual de um macho caprino ante uma fêmea. A etapa pré-copulatória consiste na aproximação do macho, no ato de fugar que é o de cheirar a vulva da fêmea. Quando a fêmea urina o macho cheira e produz o reflexo de flehmen. Por último o macho escoiceia a fêmea para depois realizar a monta na etapa copulatória. • _____ESTIMULAÇÃO SEXUAL A estimulação sexual é um componente essencial para que o comportamento sexual ocorra. Como parte desse estímulo, machos e fêmeas de algumas espécies secretam substâncias voláteis conhecidas como feromônios fora do corpo, que exercem sua ação sobre outros indivíduos da mesma espécie. Essas substâncias são detectadas pelo órgão vomeronasal (figura 3), também conhecido como órgão de Jacobson; localizado no osso vômer, entre o nariz e o céu da boca; que possui dois dutos nasopalatinos cujas aberturas estão localizadas atrás do lábio superior. A superfície desses dutos e do órgão é recoberta por um epitélio com neurônios bipolares sensoriais que captam feromônios e enviam informações, por meio de um estímulo nervoso, ao bulbo olfatório acessório e para o hipotálamo. Para facilitar a entrada de feromônios no órgão vomeronasal, os ruminantes machos e equinos, bem como algumas fêmeas, realizam o reflexo de Flehmen (figura 4), que consiste em um movimento facial em que o lábio superior é levantado para expor a abertura dos dutos nasopalatinos. Determinou-se que as fêmeas produzem feromônios que são secretados na urina, bem como no muco cervical e vaginal, a fim de atrair o macho e promover sua atividade sexual; estimulação conhecida como efeito feminino indireto. Esses feromônios também podem estimular outras fêmeas; na verdade, foi visto que as fêmeas que estão juntas sincronizam a apresentação de seu estro e podem até iniciar a estação reprodutiva juntas. Este fenômeno é conhecido como efeito feminino-feminino ou efeito feminino direto. Figura 3: olfateio da genitália pelo macho. Aqui o macho é atraído pelo feromônio que a fêmea produz e exala pela vagina. Figura 4: movimento do lábio superior típico do reflexo de Flehmen. Os machos sexualmente ativos, por sua vez, também emitem feromônios, que podem ser detectados na urina, na secreção de algumas glândulas sebáceas, nas glândulas ante-orbitais de carneiros e, no caso de porcos, na saliva (figura 5). Essas emissões são dependentes de andrógenos, logo os machos castrados não conseguem produzi-las. Esses feromônios, sinergicamente com as vocalizações e o comportamento do macho, exercem um efeito bioestimulante eficiente conhecido como efeito macho, que é uma alternativa ecológica e econômica para a manipulação do ciclo estral de fêmeas domésticas. O efeito macho tem sido usado com sucesso para esse fim em ovinos, caprinos, suínos e, em menor medida, em bovinos. Figura 5: salivação em reprodutores suínos, com o qual estimulam as fêmeas. Com o efeito macho, é possível causar um aumento na frequência de secreção dos pulsos de LH, o que acelera o início da atividade reprodutiva nas fêmeas durante os períodos pré-púbere, estacional ou pós-parto; também prolonga a estação reprodutiva em fêmeas sazonais. Há não mais de uma década, considerava-se que esse efeito só funcionava em tempos de transição para a estação reprodutiva ou para o anestro; agora sabemos que os machos podem estimular as fêmeas mesmo durante anestro profundo, que ocorre desde que sejam estimulados e exibam comportamento sexual suficiente para interagir com as fêmeas. É importante notar que quando as fêmeas iniciam sua atividade reprodutiva, o efeito macho também pode ser usado para sincronizar a apresentação do cio e da ovulação. O efeito macho é mais eficiente quando é um estímulo novo, pois a introdução de um macho desconhecido, ou com o qual as fêmeas não tiveram contato anterior, é suficiente para causar ciclidade independentemente de estarem em coexistência com outro macho; este detalhe é importante visto que se considerava anteriormente que as fêmeas tiveram que permanecer completamente isoladas de todos os machos por, pelo menos, duas semanas. Foi constatado, inclusive, que toda vez que as fêmeas são expostas a um novo macho, ocorre um aumento na frequência dos pulsos de LH, com a consequente ovulação, ainda que a exposição ao macho não seja permanente ou constante. Foi sugerido que a presença intermitente de machos, algumas horas a cada 12 horas, é suficiente para estimular as fêmeas. Em ovelhas, foi descrito que a ovulação ocorre entre 50 e 56 h após o primeiro contato com o macho, variando de 30 a 72 h, tempo que pode dobrar quando se trata de animais pré-púberes. • _____DEFINIÇÃO DE ESTRO A palavra estro vem do grego oistros, que significa exaltação ou desejo desenfreado e se refere ao comportamento errático e nervoso que as vacas adotam quando são picadas pela mutuca ou mosca do estábulo (família Oestridae). O estro é uma fase reprodutiva que faz parte do ciclo estral das fêmeas de todos os mamíferos domésticos. É a fase mais fácil de reconhecer dentro deste ciclo, porque mudanças características são observadas no comportamento, nos ovários e nos órgãos genitais internos e externos. • _____CARACTERÍSTICAS DO ESTRO O estro é considerado a partir das características comportamentais das fêmeas, é a única fase do ciclo estral em que a fêmea mostra interesse pelo macho, aceitando o acasalamento e a cópula; por isso é definido como o período de receptividade sexual. O sinônimo utilizado com mais frequência é o cio. Se o foco de estudo dessa fase são as alterações que ocorrem no útero, o estro caracteriza a fase proliferativa, já que os estrogênios estão elevados, o que promove a proliferação tanto do endométrio quanto das glândulas endometriais. Nos genitais também ocorrem modificações que visam atrair o macho e favorecer a cópula, entre outras estão a hiperemia e o edema vulvar, além da secreção de muco cervical e vaginal (figura 6). Do ponto de vista dos processos ovarianos, o estro é uma fase que se classifica dentro da fase folicular do ciclo estral, ou seja, quando ocorre o desenvolvimento folicular. Os eventos endócrinos correspondentes podem ser consultados no trabalho sobre a endocrinologia reprodutiva . É necessário ressaltar que na maioria das espécies domésticas o comportamento estral ocorre quando as concentrações de estradiol são elevadas. A exceção pode ser observada na cadela, cujos níveis máximos de estradiol ocorrem durante o proestro, de forma que, quando o estro começa, as concentrações desse hormônio começam a diminuir. Esse declínio continua durante o estro, culminando quando as concentrações de estradiol caem para menos de 15 pg/ml. Isso acontece porque nessa espécie o pico de LH ocorre durante a transição do proestro para o estro, de modo que as concentrações de progesterona chegam a cerca de 1 ng/ml quando o comportamento estral começa e continuam a aumentar durante o estro. Figura 6: muco cristalino e fluido, característico de vacas em estro. • _____FATORES QUE PODEM AFETAR A MANIFESTAÇÃO DO ESTRO É importante lembrar que existem diferenças no grau e na forma em que ocorrem a manifestação e a duração do estro nas espécies animais, além da existência de variações individuais. Ainda temos parâmetros médios que podem ser usados para descrever este período em diferentes espécies. Em bovinos, por exemplo, pode-se fazer uma distinção entre bovinos especializados na produção de carne e bovinos leiteiros, onde a intensidade com que o estro se manifesta é menor no primeiro grupo, principalmente quando se trata de bovinos zebuínos. Em estudos genéticos realizados com bovinos, por outro lado, tem-se considerado que a intensidade da expressão da conduta sexual é uma característica hereditária (h2 = 0,21). Além disso, existe uma grande diversidade de fatores ambientais e sociais que podem modificar a apresentação dos ciclos estrais e a manifestação do comportamento estral. Fotoperíodo O principal regulador da estacionalidade reprodutiva é o fotoperíodo. A influência da mudança das horas do dia na atividade reprodutiva e, portanto, na apresentação do estro é amplamente determinada pela localização geográfica, e é maior à medida que a distância do equador aumenta. O fotoperíodo afeta principalmente as espécies que apresentam estro apenas em uma época do ano, conhecidas como poliéstricas sazonais. Nessas espécies, o fotoperíodo também pode modificar o tempo de início da puberdade. Nutrição Uma deficiência nutricional pode encurtar a estação de acasalamento e até mesmo suspendê-la se a desnutrição for severa. Em bovinos de corte, o reinício da atividade reprodutiva pós-parto ou puberdade também pode ser retardado quando a ingestão nutricional é inadequada. Aspectos sociais A superlotação pode atrasar o início da puberdade em animais jovens ou causar a ausência de ciclos estrais em adultos. Os efeitos fêmea e macho como estimulantes da ciclicidade também devem ser levados em consideração. Hierarquia Observado em cães cujas matilhas têm uma classificação hierárquica bem estabe-lecida, na qual os machos subordinados não têm permissão para acasalar com as fêmeas dominantes. Este comportamento é observado até mesmo em cães domésticos nos quais uma cadela dominante não permite ser montada facilmente, mesmo apresentando estro. Da mesma forma, em bovinos zebuínos, as vacas dominantes não aceitam que outras fêmeas as montem o que pode dificultar a detecção de estro a campo. Tipo de alojamento Quanto mais intensa a acomodação, menor a manifestação do comportamento sexual, pois há menos espaço para os animais interagirem entre si. É menos frequente observar as manifestações de estro se o local onde os animais estão alojados for muito grande e eles tiverem que caminhar grandes extensões para encontrar um animal com o qual possam se relacionar. Problemas nos membros Existem anomalias, principalmente nos membros posteriores, que impedem a fêmea de ter comportamento homossexual ou de aceitar a monta, pois causa dor tanto ao montar quanto ao ser montada. •_DURAÇÃO DO ESTRO E A RELAÇÃO COM O MOMENTO DA OVULAÇÃO Foi estabelecido que o pico de LH pode ser um bom preditor do tempo de ovulação, pois há uma alta correlação entre o tempo decorrido do pico de LH e a ovulação. Na Tabela 1 pode-se ver os períodos de duração do estro e o tempo em que o pico de LH e a ovulação ocorrem nas diferentes espécies domésticas. Tabela 1: momento de ovulação em diferentes espécies domésticas e a relação com o pico de LH. Espécie Duração do estro Ovulação Pico de LH até a ovulação (horas) Bovina 18 h (8 a 18 h) 10 h (4 a 16 h) de finalizado o estro 28 (24 a 32) Ovina 24 a 36 h 18 a 24 h após iniciado o estro 24 a 26 Caprina 36 h (24 a 48 h) 30 a 35 h após o início do estro 28 Suína 48 a 72 h 24 a 48 h após o início do estro 40 Equina 7 d (2 a 12 d) 1 a 2 d antes de finalizar o estro -- Canina 9 d (3 a 20 d) 2 a 3 d do início do estro (pode variar) 48 a 60 Felina 7 d (3 a 16 d) Induzida pela cópula 26 a 28 h depois 24 Onde d = dias; h = horas. Vale ressaltar que em equinos o aumento nas concentrações de LH ocorre gradati-vamente; um pico pré-ovulatório agudo não é visto como no resto da espécie, uma vez que o nível máximo desse hormônio é atingido um a dois dias após a ovulação. No entanto, deve-se entender que, no momento da ovulação, as concentrações de LH são altas o suficiente para desencadear a ovulação, como em qualquer outra espécie. A gata também apresenta uma particularidade no que diz respeito à ovulação, já que é um evento induzido pela cópula que estimula a liberação de LH, duas a quatro horas depois. No entanto, foi relatado que, às vezes, o pico de LH de uma única cópula pode ser insuficiente para induzir um nível adequado de LH, causando ovulação apenas em aproximadamente 50% das fêmeas. Por outro lado, verificou-se que entre 30 e 40% das fêmeas podem ovular espontaneamente. Além dos felinos, outras espécies com ovulação induzida são os leporídeos (por exemplo, o coelho e a lebre), os camelídeos (por exemplo a lhama, a alpaca, a vicunha e a camelo fêmea) e os mustelídeos (por exemplo, o visom, o furão e o arminho). • _____MECANISMOS PARA ATRAIR O MACHO Os mecanismos femininos de atração do macho podem ser divididos em dois tipos, de um lado, alterações na genitália externa, que por sua vez são consequência de processos endócrinos e modificações na genitália interna. Por outro lado, mudanças de comportamento, que por sua vez se dividem em dois tipos: cortejo e acasalamento. Mudanças nas genitais É importante observar que nas fêmeas todas as adaptações genitais são mediadas por altas concentrações de estrogênios, entretanto, é interessante notar que os efeitos podem variar de uma espécie para outra. Um padrão típico é o útero ficar túrgido, uma vez que os estrogênios promovem a contração muscular, aumento do suprimento sanguíneo e proliferação das glândulas endometriais; em éguas, ao contrário, os estrogênios fazem com que o útero fique edemaciado e sem tonalidade, enquanto o colo do útero parece relaxado, observações que devem ser consideradas ao realizar a palpação retal e a ultrassonografia. A imagem ultrassonográfica do útero da égua tem a aparência de uma “roda de vagão” (figura 7). Em carnívoros, o útero também apresenta edema durante o estro. Figura 7: imagem de ultrassom de um corte transversal do útero de uma égua em estro; observa-se edema grau 3, que provoca a típica imagem de “roda de carroça”. Fonte: HV-UFRPE. Outro efeito promovido pelos estrogênios é a produção de um muco cervical cristalino com certa viscosidade, que, mesmo quando ocorre em todos os animais, é mais abundante e característico nas vacas e, posteriormente, nas porcas (figura 6). O muco tem por finalidade favorecer a passagem dos espermatozoides para o útero, bem como reter aqueles que não são viáveis para que sejam fagocitados ou eliminados junto com as secreções vaginais. A secreção da cérvix é composta por glicoproteínas; dois tipos principais são reconhecidos: a sialomucina, que faz parte de um muco viscoso produzido nas áreas basais das criptas cervicais, e a sulfomucina, que é um muco altamente viscoso, um produto das células apicais. No caso da cadela, uma secreção com sangue pode ocorrer através da vulva (figura 8), isso se deve a uma diapedese causada por alta permeabilidade vascular em resposta aos estrogênios. A maioria das fêmeas apresentam esse corrimento durante o proestro e cerca de 70% continuarão com ele durante o estro. Uma proporção muito pequena de cadelas pode até continuar a ter secreção serossanguínea durante o início do diestro. Deve-se considerar que, quando a ausência de sangramento é relatada em cadelas, na verdade, pode ser devido à falta de observação, uma vez que pode ser escasso, ou passar despercebido se a mesma lamber com frequência, se a cor do pelo for escura ou possuir pelos muito longos, ou se for em grandes áreas onde a secreção é difícil de observar. Figura 8: aparência vulvar em cadelas. Esquerda: edema e hiperemia. À direita: secreção vulvar com sangue. O grau de hiperemia e edema vulvar varia nas diferentes espécies, sendo muito evidente nas porcas (figura 9). Em contraste, as gatas não têm receptores de estradiol nos lábios vulvares, razão pela qual não manifestam edema vulvar ou hiperemia. O inchaço acentuado e o alargamento da vulva na cadela são característicos da fase de proestro, devido às peculiaridades hormonais do seu ciclo. Na tabela 2 são mostradas as alterações mais comuns que ocorrem na genitália das diferentes espécies de mamíferos domésticos. Figura 9: aparência vulvar em porcas. Esquerda: vulva normal. À direita: hiperemia e edema típicos da fase de estro. Tabela 2: Mudanças características na genitália interna e externa, que ocorrem durante o estro em diferentes espécies domésticas Espécie Genitais externos Genitais internos Bovina Secreção abundante de muco cristalino. Pouco edema vulvar aparente e hiperemia. Turgor uterino Ovina Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Não há sinais muito evidentes. Turgor uterino Caprina Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Não há sinais muito evidentes. Turgor uterino Suína Pouca secreção de muco abundante. Hiperemia e edema vulvar muito aparente. Turgor uterino Equina Edema vulvar; as dobras dos lábios são frouxas. Vulva hiperêmica e com muco. Útero flácido e edematoso. Colo do útero macio e relaxado Canina Pode haver secreção com sangue. Edema vulvar muito aparente, lábios mais macios e alongados. Útero edematoso Felina Não há sinais evidentes. Turgor uterino Fonte: compilação de vários autores. Mudanças comportamentais Foi demonstrado que o comportamento sexual nas fêmeas é determinado pela secreção de estrogênios, principalmente 17β-estradiol, que percorre a corrente sanguínea como um sinal humoral e atinge o sistema nervoso central ao nível do hipotálamo, que possui um grupo de células entre o quiasma óptico e a região pré-óptica anterior, denominado centro sexual. Esses neurônios são responsáveis por transformar o estímulo humoral em um estímulo nervoso, que por sua vez induz o comportamento sexual. Em espécies como ovinos, e em menor grau os bovinos, observou-se que para a manifestação do comportamento estral ocorrer, o cérebro requer uma exposição prévia à progesterona que o sensibiliza para a ação dos estrogênios, que se dá pelas concentrações do ciclo anterior. Por isso, constatou-se que a primeira ovulação da estação reprodutiva ou puberdade (no caso dos bovinos a primeira ovulação pós-parto) ocorre sem manifestação de estro. É até a segunda ovulação que o comportamento normal do estro será observado. Esta condição é conhecida como ovulação silenciosa ou estro silencioso, e é indetectável para o trabalhador, o produtor e o veterinário, e que possui como principal causa os distúrbios nutricionais. Devido nas fêmeas o comportamento sexual se limitar a um curto período de horas ou dias, enquanto nos machos há poucas variações em seu comportamento sexual, aparentemente é ela quem inicia o comportamento de cortejo. Aparentemente, isso se deve ao fato de que, nos machos, o padrão de secreção de testosterona é constante e mostra apenas leves diminuições fora da estação reprodutiva em espécies sazonais. Nos machos, a testosterona é transformada no cérebro em estradiol para produzir o comportamento reprodutivo. Durante a fase de estro ocorrem manifestações comportamentais comuns a todas as espécies, como as seguintes:  Aumento geral da atividade física, isso se reflete no aumento da locomoção e que é direcionado à busca do macho;  Inquietação e movimento ao menor estímulo;  Ingestão diminuída;  Diminuição da produção de leite;  Aumento gradual da temperatura corporal;  Micção frequente na presença do macho: isso é importante, pois os feromônios responsáveis pela atração do macho estão presentes na urina;  Vocalizações frequentes, típicas de cada espécie;  Atração do macho. Na tabela 3 são apresentadas as características comportamentais mais comuns das fêmeas das diferentes espécies de mamíferos domésticos. Tabela 3: Comportamentos característicos durante o estro em diferentes espécies Espécie Conduta Bovina Monta entre fêmeas (conduta homossexual). Batidas antes da monta (figura 10). Aumento nas vocalizações. Ovina Movimentação da cauda. Pode haver conduta homossexual. Cabeça para trás em busca do macho. Caprina Movimento característico da cauda. Pode haver conduta homossexual. Cabeça para trás em busca do macho. Suína Grunhido característico (grunhido de estro). Falsas lutas. Pode haver pequena conduta homossexual. Orelhas eretas e projetadas para trás. Equina Diminuição da agressividade com o macho. Sem conduta homossexual. Mostra a área genital ante o macho e everte o clitóris. Espelhamento: contrações rítmicas dos lábios vulvares. Canina Reflexos contráteis na vulva e levantamento da cauda, inclinando-se para o lado, na presença do macho. Lambidas frequentes da região vulvar. Felina Inquietação. Chafurdamento. Miados característicos. Esfrega-se contra os objetos. Fonte: compilação de vários autores. O comportamento homossexual em fêmeas foi extensivamente estudado em bovinos (figura 10), por ser um dos sinais mais evidentes e importantes da manifestação do estro; ocorre em cerca de 70% dos animais e sua expressão é altamente influenciada pela hierarquia social do rebanho. Deve-se levar em consideração que os animais que estão em estro precisam interagir uns com os outros para expressar esse comportamento, sendo observada maior atividade quando há cerca de 20 fêmeas em estro. Sabe-se também que o tipo de instalações é imprescindível para a manifestação do comportamento homossexual, visto que os animais encontrados nos piquetes montam mais do que os alojados em instalações intensivas, isto fica ainda mais evidente quando o piso destas últimas é escorregadio. As montas entre fêmeas são observadas com maior frequência à noite, ocorrendo cerca de 70% das montas entre as sete da noite e as sete da manhã, o que se explica pelo fato de que durante estas horas os animais não são submetidos a nenhum manejo rotineiro, como ordenha, alimentação ou limpeza das instalações, além disso, acredita-se que os animais preferem montar nos períodos mais frios do dia, principal-mente em criações tropicais. Em bovinos de corte, sugere-se que tanto a fêmea que monta quanto a que é montada estejam em cio; ao contrário do gado leiteiro, em que se considera que o animal que monta está perto do cio, enquanto o que é montado está em cio. Figura 10: comportamento sexual em bovinos. À esquerda: batendo. À direita: comportamento homossexual. No caso de cadelas, deve-se levar em consideração que o comportamento homossexual está associado à hierarquia e dominância, mas não à manifestação do comportamento estral. Além disso, algumas fêmeas muito dominantes não permanecem imóveis na frente do macho, nem permitem que ele a monte, mesmo quando estão em estro. Na égua, uma característica do cio é o espelhamento, que consiste na abertura e fechamento dos lábios vulvares de forma rítmica, geralmente acompanhada pela eversão do clitóris (figura 11). Este último sempre ocorre durante a micção, mas neste caso a fêmea o faz na presença do macho, mesmo quando ela não está urinando. Uma vez que a fêmea no cio está na frente de um macho, ela exibe um comportamento receptivo; a atitude da fêmea é passiva e se caracteriza em todas as espécies pela imobilidade diante da monta do macho, considerada o sinal definitivo do estro. Em geral, a fêmea também adota uma postura diferenciada conhecida como lordose, pois arqueia as costas para baixo, ao mesmo tempo em que levanta a cauda e inclina-a, levantando também os lábios vulvares para promover a cópula. A descrição acima é muito típica dos ruminantes, da cadela e da gata. Na égua, ao contrário, a posição anterior à cópula implica em curvar a coluna para cima (cifose) e baixar a garupa ou inclinar a pelve. • ____COMPORTAMENTO SEXUAL DOS MACHOS O comportamento sexual do macho é muito importante, pois estima-se que o macho dominante pode ser responsável por até 80% dos nascimentos em um rebanho. Um fator a ser considerado é a libido, definida como a “disposição e entusiasmo” de um macho para tentar montar e servir a uma fêmea. No caso dos bovinos, estima-se que cerca de 21% dos machos em que a libido é avaliada não conseguem reproduzir. Isso se torna ainda mais crítico quando se leva em consideração que a libido baixa é hereditária e reproduzível, além de estar associada à puberdade tardia nas filhas. Figura 11: sinais feitos por éguas no cio. À esquerda: espelhamento. À direita: eversão do clitóris. Nos machos, as montas sem penetração e ejaculação durante a fase de cortejo (conhecidas como montas falsas) são muito importantes para estimular o desejo sexual e aumentar a quantidade e a qualidade do sêmen que mais tarde será ejaculado durante a cópula (figura 12). No caso dos touros, sabe-se que o macho monta na fêmea em média seis vezes antes de realizar a primeira cópula, embora o número de montas falsas seja reduzido nas ejaculações subsequentes. Figura 12: comportamento de um cachaço diante de uma fêmea no cio. À esquerda: olfateio dos flancos e salivação do macho. À direita: ereção e retirada do pênis. Na tabela 4 são listados os comportamentos típicos de machos de espécies de mamíferos domésticos durante o cortejo, detecção de fêmeas no cio e cópula. Tabela 4: Comportamentos característicos durante o cortejo e cópula em machos das diferentes espécies domésticas Espécie Conduta pré-cópula Conduta copulatória Bovina Reflexo de Flehmen; cheira e lambe a vulva; inquietude; esfrega o pescoço ou o focinho na fêmea; tentativa de montas. Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 3 segundos pós-penetração. Ovina Reflexo de Flehmen; empurram e monta a fêmea; vocalizações; tentativa de montas; inquietude; mantém-se com os membros anteriores à garupa da fêmea (figura 13). Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 2 segundos pós-penetração. Caprina Cheira a urina da fêmea e realiza o reflexo de Flehmen; urina a barba e o peito; apalpa o chão em volta da fêmea; vocalizações; língua dentro e fora da boca; cheira e bate na área genital; se sustenta com os membros anteriores à garupa da fêmea. Salto ou golpe do rim; ejaculação precoce: 1 a 2 segundos pós-penetração. Suína Cheira a região genital e dos flancos (figura 12); tentativas de montas; contato naso-nasal ou naso-genital; vocalizações; range os dentes e move as mandíbulas lateralmente; salivação e micção frequente; morde suavemente as orelhas e a cabeça da fêmea. Ereção depois da monta; contrações testiculares muito aparentes durante a ejaculação; ejaculação lenta: 5 a 20 minutos pós-penetração. Equina Vocalizações; reflexo de Flehmen; morde o pescoço da fêmea. Sinalização; movimento lateral da cauda durante a ejaculação; movimentos de fricção; ejaculação média: 20 a 60 segundos pós-penetração. Canina Tentativas de montas; reprodução. O macho se vira e fica abotoado durante a ejaculação; ejaculação lenta: 10 a 30 minutos, mas pode chegas até 50 pós-penetração. Felina Morde o pescoço da fêmea. A fêmea realiza o “ronco pós-coito” quando o macho desmonta. Fonte: compilação de vários autores. Depois de haver realizado com sucesso um serviço (um acasalamento acompanhado de ejaculação dentro do aparelho reprodutor da fêmea), os machos apresentam a fase pós-copulatória, também conhecida como período refratário, em que mostram desinteresse pela fêmea com quem acabam de realizar serviço. Esta fase tem duração variável entre os indivíduos, mas foi visto que eles podem retomar a atividade pré-copulatória e copulatória mais rapidamente se forem apresentados a uma fêmea diferente, fenômeno conhecido como “efeito Coolidge”. Os machos geralmente são capazes de realizar mais de uma cópula por dia antes de atingir a saciedade sexual. O número de cópulas varia entre espécies e indivíduos, portanto, suínos e equinos realizam em média três montas, enquanto pequenos ruminantes realizam 10 e bovinos até 20. Uma vez saciado, o macho pode parar de montar por um ou mais dias, mesmo que haja estímulo suficiente para induzir o comportamento sexual. Figura 13: monta em ovinos. É mostrado como o macho apoia os membros anteriores na garupa da fêmea. Nessa imagem o macho detectou o cio, por isso está usando um avental para impedir a penetração. • ____DETECÇÃO DE ESTROS (CIOS) A detecção adequada do estro é imprescindível para um bom manejo reprodutivo e produtivo dos animais do rebanho, pois é essencial determinar o momento ideal da monta ou inseminação artificial, que consequentemente atinge bons índices de fertilidade. A falha na detecção do estro (considerada uma das principais causas de perdas econômicas na pecuária), ocorre em função da baixa eficiência, bem como da precisão, dos métodos utilizados. A tabela 5 resume as consequências da falha na detecção do estro em vacas. Tabela 5: Consequências de falhas na eficiência e precisão dos testes utilizados para o diagnóstico de cio em bovinos Falha Eficiência (vacas não detectadas) Precisão (vacas mal detectadas) Aumenta-se Número de fêmeas vazias; Número de dias abertos; Intervalo entre partos. Números de serviços por concepção; Número de doses de sêmen. Diminui-se Número de crias por ano; Produção cárnea ou láctea. Fertilidade por serviço. Fonte: anotações de aulas na UFPB. Para implementar um programa de detecção de estro, é necessário ter alguns requisitos essenciais, como:  A identificação dos animais que deve ser realizada de forma clara de modo que o observador possa distingui-los claramente.  Os registros reprodutivos que permitem estimar a fase do ciclo estral em que os animais se encontram e ajudam a discernir os animais que sabemos que estão perto do cio daqueles que foram inseminados recentemente ou estão prenhes.  Um pessoal qualificado deve observar animais no cio; esse trabalho não pode ser confiado a qualquer pessoa; deve ser realizado por quem conheça bem os sinais de estro da espécie e que saiba considerá-los em conjunto; deve reconhecer, assim mesmo, a evidência da manifestação de comportamento sexual quando o animal estiver fora de seu campo visual. Outro ponto importante nos programas de detecção de estro é a escolha do método para o seu diagnóstico, que deve estar de acordo com aspectos como as características comportamentais da espécie, disponibilidade e facilidade de uso, custos, entre outros. Alguns dos métodos existentes para detecção de cio são descritos abaixo. Detecção visual Este tipo de detecção é baseado na observação a curtas e longas distâncias pela equipe da unidade de produção, em busca de mudanças genitais e comportamentais nas fêmeas; é amplamente utilizado no caso dos bovinos. Foi estudado que a eficiência na detecção visual do estro aumenta em paralelo com o número de observações realizadas por dia. Ou seja, se a observação for realizada apenas durante as atividades rotineiras da exploração, a eficiência será de 50%; quando se realizam duas observações com 12 h de intervalo, a eficiência aumenta para 70%; quando três observações são feitas por dia em intervalos de 8 h, a eficiência chega a 90% e quando a detecção visual é feita constantemente, a eficiência na detecção do estro chega a ficar entre 95 e 100%. No caso dos bovinos, a detecção visual se baseia, entre outros aspectos, na observação do comportamento homossexual, no aparecimento de muco cristalino pela vulva, bem como nas marcas de monta (culote e garupa sujos, direção dos pelos no sacro ao contrário); inquietação, busca pelo macho, inapetência e segregação. Deve-se levar em consideração que nem todas as espécies animais são passíveis de serem detectadas por esse método, pois há espécies em que não há alterações evidentes na genitália e seu comportamento não denota nenhum sinal característico e forte de estar em estro, como é o caso de ovinos, caprinos e equinos; no qual é necessário submetê-los à presença de um macho para poder saber adequadamente o seu estado reprodutivo. Teste de monta Este teste é utilizado especificamente em porcas e consiste em observar a reação à pressão que uma pessoa exerce sobre a garupa e a coluna do animal, considerando que as fêmeas que estão em estro permanecem estáticas, enquanto as que não se movem (figura 14). A eficiência desse teste pode variar consideravelmente, estando a fêmea submetida ou não a algum estímulo do macho. Isso significa que quando o teste é realizado apenas pelo experimentador sem nenhum contato com o macho, a eficiência fica em torno de 48%, ao passo que, se o realizarmos para que a fêmea possa cheirar e ouvir o macho, a eficiência pode chegar a 90%. Se a porca também vê e toca o macho, a porcentagem de eficiência pode ser aumentada em mais 3 a 7%, respectivamente; enquanto é 100% eficiente quando se aloja e interage com o macho. Figura 14: imobilidade durante a prova de monta em porcas. É importante considerar que embora o teste de monta seja usado principalmente em porcas, as fêmeas no cio de quase todas as espécies apresentam uma reação de imobilização quando a garupa é pressionada; elas também movem a cauda para o lado e podem levantar a vulva. Machos auxiliares e rufiões O macho é o mais eficiente em distinguir as fêmeas de sua espécie no cio, pois é capaz de detectar coisas imperceptíveis aos humanos. A utilização de machos auxiliares e/ou rufiões baseia-se na apresentação de um macho às fêmeas e na observação da resposta de todo o grupo. As fêmeas que permitem ser montadas pelo macho e permanecem imóveis são consideradas no cio. A “guarda” ou “auxílio” pode ser realizada duas vezes ao dia, com intervalos de 12 horas entre eles. Para se utilizar o método é fundamental que haja machos inteiros com boa libido, porém, bons reprodutores não devem ser usados para esse fim, pois podem se machucar por uma fêmea que não esteja no momento ideal ou podem ficar exaustos e recusam-se a montar quando seu uso como reprodutores for necessário. Nos equinos essa técnica diagnóstica é a mais utilizada e é conhecida como “provocação”, já que o macho auxiliar é denominado como provocador e deve ser feito diariamente ou em dias alternados durante o período de cio previsto; nesta espécie, as fêmeas podem ser muito agressivas, por isso é comum o uso de uma barreira protetora entre o macho e a fêmea (figura 15). Quando os machos auxiliares são usados, é interessante evitar que ocorra a cópula fértil com as fêmeas, então várias estratégias foram desenvolvidas, principalmente cirúrgicas, para que os machos utilizados possam ser:  Vestidos com um avental (figura 16);  Vasectomizados;  Epididectomizados;  Pênis desviado;  Com fixação peniana em forma de “S”;  Com obliteração do orifício prepucial;  Castrados e com tratamento androgênico. Os rufiões não são considerados machos auxiliares e sim como machos com capacidade de detectar uma fêmea apta para reprodução, porém sem a capacidade de fecundá-la. São utilizados na detecção de estros para monta natural ou inseminação artificial, já que sua presença estimula o cio e a ovulação na fêmea. Já que o animal não possui a capacidade de fecundar a fêmea, a obtenção de rufiões dá-se através de técnicas cirúrgicas como as citadas supra. Figura 15: provocação em equinos (método para instigar e/ou detectar a égua em cio). Figura 16: macho ovino vestido com avental para identificar a ovelha em cio. Fêmeas Em muitas unidades de produção, o uso de fêmeas (com certas características específicas) é preferível ao uso de machos para detecção de cio, pois seu manejo é mais simples e seguro, sua manutenção é menor e não há risco de ocorrência da penetração que pode ser uma fonte de transmissão de doenças. Por exemplo, fêmeas androgenizadas podem ser usadas, tanto tratadas exogenamente, quanto aquelas com pseudo-hermafroditismo ou freemartinismo. Palpação retal É um método muito útil no caso de bovinos e equinos, pois o estado reprodutivo em que o animal se encontra pode ser determinado de acordo com as estruturas ovarianas presentes, a tonicidade do tecido uterino e o tipo de corrimento vaginal que pode ser observado. Nessa técnica, a precisão e a eficiência dependem da experiência da sonda, bem como da correta subdivisão dos animais que são passados a ela para revisão. Ultrassonografia Com o uso do ultrassom em tempo real e sob o mesmo princípio da palpação retal, pode-se determinar o momento do ciclo estral; sua confiabilidade é maior quando comparada à palpação, pois os resultados são menos subjetivos. Medição de mudanças fisiológicas Toda fêmea em cio apresenta ligeiras mudanças fisiológicas nos seguintes aspec-tos:  Sua temperatura aumenta;  A frequência cardíaca aumenta;  A produção leiteira diminui. Essas mudanças, quando medidas repetidamente, são úteis para determinar o momento do estro. Quando as concentrações de progesterona no sangue estão abaixo de 1 ng/ml, indica que a fase lútea daquele animal terminou e que, portanto, está perto de apresentar estro ou que acabou de estar. No caso das cadelas, a dosagem da progesterona tem sido muito valiosa para determinar o momento do início do estro, mas sua interpretação é exatamente o inverso do resto das espécies, quando atinge o nível de 1 ng/ml, sabemos que está prestes a iniciar a receptividade sexual. A citologia vaginal esfoliativa realizada, sobretudo, nas cadelas e tem como princípio determinar o tipo de células presentes no esfregaço vaginal, de acordo com sua morfologia e número. Sua base é que as camadas celulares da mucosa vaginal se multiplicam à medida que o nível de estrogênio aumenta, fazendo com que as células da superfície, que estão em direção ao lúmen, morram e adquiram a aparência folheada ou floculada. Durante a fase estral, entre 80 e 100% das células observadas são superficiais e cornificadas ou escamosas. A confiabilidade do método é muito alta, mas são necessárias amostras seriadas, pois o padrão celular é cíclico e nem sempre uma amostra isolada indica com precisão o estágio do ciclo reprodutivo. Uma ferramenta útil em equinos é observar a tonicidade e coloração do colo do útero e vagina através de um vaginoscópio. As alterações observadas são consequência dos estrogênios e a aparência nos animais em estro é de uma estrutura com secreções, hiperêmicas e edematosas. Também é eficaz para uso em cabras. O aumento da atividade física pode ser medido com um pedômetro, que é um detector eletrônico que é colocado nas patas e mede a atividade motora das fêmeas; transmite um sinal para um computador que registra e representa graficamente os dados. Lembre-se de que os animais no cio apresentam maior mobilidade. Em geral, considera-se que uma fêmea no cio anda pelo menos duas vezes mais que as que não estão. A viscosidade do muco cervical pode ser medida com o estrón, que é um dispositivo usado em bovinos e cuja base é medir a resistência elétrica no fluido vaginal ou impedância, que é diminuída durante o proestro e o estro. Para aumentar a eficiência desta ferramenta é necessário realizar medições repetidas e manter registros individuais. Junto com os métodos descritos aqui, ajudas foram desenvolvidas para tornar a detecção do estro mais eficiente, entre as quais estão: Detectores de monta Esses dispositivos são muito diversificados, a maioria deles são colocados na linha média da garupa da fêmea, logo na frente da inserção da cauda, mas também podem ser colocados no peito ou abaixo do queixo e início da barbela do macho. Sua função é deixar uma marca distinguível ou registrar uma monta no animal que está no cio. Entre eles estão os seguintes. A pintura com giz de cera na altura da garupa, é comum usá-la para que quando uma vaca for montada por outra, a marca fique borrada ou desbotada, indicando que a fêmea está no cio (figura 17). O arnês de marcador que é colocado abaixo do queixo e início da barbela do macho (“Bola de queixo” figura 18) ou no peito, para que ao montar uma fêmea receptiva, pinte sua garupa deixando uma marca facilmente identificável. As manchas de tinta chamadas de patches “kamar” (figura 19), que são colocadas na garupa da fêmea e quando ela é montada por outro animal, o peso faz com que ela quebre o recipiente e libere uma tinta que podemos facilmente observar. O relógio de cio é um dispositivo eletrônico que se conecta à garupa da fêmea e registra o momento em que é montada (figura 20), quando pressionado pelo peso mantido por alguns segundos, emitindo um sinal que é recebido por um computador. Tem sido indicado que a precisão na detecção do estro com este método é muito alta, podendo chegar a 96%. Figura 17: vacas com pintura de giz de cera na linha dorsal, utilizada para diagnóstico do cio. À esquerda vaca não montada. À direita vaca que já foi montada, a qual a marca de giz aparece desbotada. Figura 18: uso do arnês marcador para diagnóstico de cio. À esquerda macho com marcador na barbela. À direita marca no dorso da fêmea realizada pela monta de um macho e que indica que o animal marcado está em cio. Figura 19: pastas de “kamar” para a identificação de fêmeas em cio. Figura 20: relógio de cio, dispositivo eletrônico para a detecção de montas À esquerda foto do dispositivo. À direita, vacas com o dispositivo na garupa. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS AURICH, Christine. Reproductive cycles of horses. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 220-228, 2011. AISEN, Eduardo G. Reprodução ovina e caprina. MedVet, 2008. BARTLEWSKI, Pawel M.; BABY, Tanya E.; GIFFIN, Jennifer L. Reproductive cycles in sheep. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 259-268, 2011. 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REYNOLDS, L. P.; REDMER, D. A. Growth and development of the corpus luteum. JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTION AND FERTILITY-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 181-191, 1999. RIPPE, Christian A. El ciclo estral. In: Dairy Cattle Reproduction Conference. 2009. p. 111-116. SANGHA, G. K.; SHARMA, R. K.; GURAYA, S. S. Biology of corpus luteum in small ruminants. Small Ruminant Research, v. 43, n. 1, p. 53-64, 2002. SARTORI, R.; BARROS, C. M. Reproductive cycles in Bos indicus cattle. Animal Reproduction Science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 244-250, 2011. SENGER, Phillip L. et al. Pathways to pregnancy and parturition. Current Conceptions, Inc., 1615 NE Eastgate Blvd., 1997. SMITH, Matthew J.; JENNES, Lothar. Neural signals that regulate GnRH neurones directly during the oestrous cycle. Reproduction (Cambridge, England), v. 122, n. 1, p. 1-10, 2001. SOEDE, N. M.; LANGENDIJK, P.; KEMP, B. Reproductive cycles in pigs. Animal reproduction science, v. 124, n. 3-4, p. 251-258, 2011. WEBB, R. et al. Mechanisms regulating follicular development and selection of the dominant follicle. REPRODUCTION-CAMBRIDGE-SUPPLEMENT-, p. 71-90, 2003. WHITTEMORE, Colin et al. The science and practice of pig production. Blackwell Science Ltd, 1998. FIXAÇÃO DO ASSUNTO 1. O comportamento sexual dos animais é uma particularidade de cada espécie na iniciação da perpetuação da vida e que deve-se a quais fatores e por quê? 2. O que é anestro? É possível revertê-lo? 3. Defina e explique os estágios comportamentais de machos e fêmeas antes, durante e depois da cópula. 4. Defina e diferencia efeito fêmea e efeito macho. 5. Define e explique a estimulação sexual dos animais e como podemos induzi-la? 6. Defina e caracterize o estro das espécies zootécnicas. 7. Quais são os fatores que retardam ou adiantam a manifestação do cio e por quê? 8. Qual a relação direta ou indireta da duração do estro com o momento da ovulação? 9. Quais os mecanismos de atração dos machos? 10. Que mudanças ocorrem nas partes reprodutivas das fêmeas para a atração do macho? 11. Cite o comportamento característico das fêmeas durante o estro que visam a atração do macho para a cópula. 12. Disserte sobre a importância do macho e sobre seu comportamento sexual para o manejo reprodutivo. 13. Qual a importância e quais os meios de detecção do estro nas fêmeas. Como hipótese, você como criador utilizaria qual método de identificação e por quê? 14. Explique as principais diferenças entre machos reprodutores e machos rufiões. Como obter um rufião? (shrink)

``People say again and again that philosophy doesn´t really progress, that we are still occupied with the same philosophical problems as were the Greeks. But the people who say this don´t understand why it has to be so. It is because our language has remained the same and keeps seducing us into asking the same questions. As long as there continues to be a verb ´to be´ that looks as if it functions in the same way as ´to eat and (...) to drink´, as long as we still have the adjectives ´identical´, ´true´, ´false´, ´possible´, as long as we continue to talk of a river of time, of an expanse of space, etc., etc., people will keep stumbling over the same puzzling difficulties and find themselves staring at something which no explanation seems capable of clearing up. And what´s more, this satisfies a longing for the transcendent, because, insofar as people think they can see the ‘limits of human understanding´, they believe of course that they can see beyond these.`` -/- This quote is from Ludwig Wittgenstein who redefined philosophy some 70 years ago (but most people have yet to find this out). Dennett, though he has been a philosopher for some 40 years, is one of them. It is also curious that both he and his prime antagonist, John Searle, studied under famous Wittgensteinians (Searle with John Austin, Dennett with Gilbert Ryle) but Searle more or less got the point and Dennett did not, (though it is stretching things to call Searle or Ryle Wittgensteinians). Dennett is a hard determinist (though he tries to sneak reality in the back door), and perhaps this is due to Ryle, whose famous book ´The Concept of Mind´(1949) continues to be reprinted. That book did a great job of exorcising the ghost, but it left the machine. -/- Dennett enjoys making the mistakes Wittgenstein, Ryle (and many others since) have exposed in detail. Our use of the words consciousness, choice, freedom, intention, particle, thinking, determines, wave, cause, happened, event (and so on endlessly) are rarely a source of confusion, but as soon as we leave normal life and enter philosophy (and any discussion detached from the environment in which language evolved—i.e., the exact context in which the words had meaning) chaos reigns. Like most, Dennett lacks a coherent framework - which Searle has called the logical structure of rationality. I have expanded on this considerably since I wrote this review and my recent articles show in detail what is wrong with Dennett's approach to philosophy, which one might call Scientism on steroids. Let me end with another quote from Wittgenstein--´Ambition is the death of thought´. -/- Those wishing a comprehensive up to date framework for human behavior from the modern two systems view may consult my book ‘The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle’ 2nd ed (2019). Those interested in more of my writings may see ‘Talking Monkeys--Philosophy, Psychology, Science, Religion and Politics on a Doomed Planet--Articles and Reviews 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019), The Logical Structure of Human Behavior (2019), and Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st Century 4th ed (2019) . (shrink)

In spite of a considerable progress in comorbidity research and huge literature on it, this phenomenon is one of the greatest epistemological, research and clinical challenges to contemporary psychiatry and medicine. Mental disorders are very often comorbidly expressed, both among themselves and with various sorts of somatic diseases and illnesses. Therefore, comorbidity studies have been expected to be an impetus to research on the validity of current diagnostic systems as well as on establishing more effective and effi cient treatment within (...) the frame of person centered transdisciplinary psychiatry and integrative medicine. This review focuses fi rst on conceptual chaos and different connotations, then on transdisciplinary perspectives of comorbidity and multimorbidity. The authors compiled an extensive set of various views and perspectives, dilemmas and controversies, in order to evaluate what we know and what we don’t about comorbidity, what comorbidity is and what comorbidity is not, what are facts and what are non-facts on comorbidity and multimorbidity. (shrink)

Contents Preface - ix -/- I. Scientific fiction movies: is there any place for God?! 1. A brief introduction about the birth of science fiction - 15 2. Religious beliefs vs Science Fiction - 18 3. Is there any place for God?! - 20 -/- II. The Village (M. Night Shyamalan) and The Giver (Phillip Noyce) or why utopia is (im)possible 1. Some utopian notions. Remembering Thomas More - 29 2. The Village and The Giver. Some remarks on ideal societies (...) - 34 3. Notes about the possible and impossible of utopia - 39 -/- III. The limits of Zombies films are the limits of philosophy? 1. Are zombies real? From folklore to films - 46 2. The mind-body problem and the empty-minded zombies? - 54 3. The fallacy of the question. Zombies films and philosophy with no limit - 61 -/- IV. Lucy - why the brain cannot be a screen 1. Lucy and some other movies - The ten percent of the brain myth - 67 2. The enhancement of humanity -The pos-humanism after Nietzsche – 71 3. About the mind and the brain. Lucy or why the brain cannot be a screen – 74 -/- V. Viktor Navorski and Sir Alfred: the limits of consciousness at the border of chaos 1. About the terminal, Locke and Lipovetsky - 83 2. Being someone at a non-place - 87 3. Reality vs fiction. Merhan Karimi Nasseri as Sir Alfred - 89 -/- VI. Alienation and slavery from Precious or what we do not want to see 1. Cinema as a moment or the exclusive experience of feeling cinema - 97 2. Two movies, only one reality - 101 3. To conclude: the paradox of precious silence or what we don't want to see - 104 -/- VII. Philosophy of time and being in Alice through the looking glass 1. Some initial considerations on Alice - 113 2. The impossible and the possible in Alice’s time - 116 3. About time and subjectivity and subjectivity in time – 120 -/- References - cxxv. (shrink)

This collection of articles was written over the last 10 years and edited to bring them up to date (2017). The copyright page has the date of the edition and new editions will be noted there as I edit old articles or add new ones. All the articles are about human behavior (as are all articles by anyone about anything), and so about the limitations of having a recent monkey ancestry (8 million years or much less depending on viewpoint) and (...) manifest words and deeds within the framework of our innate psychology as presented in the table of intentionality. As famous evolutionist Richard Leakey says, it is critical to keep in mind not that we evolved from apes, but that in every important way, we are apes. If everyone was given a real understanding of this (i.e., of human ecology and psychology to actually give them some control over themselves), maybe civilization would have a chance. As things are however the leaders of society have no more grasp of things than their constituents and so collapse into anarchy is inevitable. The first group of articles attempts to give some insight into how we behave that is reasonably free of the theoretical delusions that are universal. In the next group, I show how these insights apply by reviewing some books in philosophy and psychology. Next I review books on science and religion and finally provide reviews and articles showing how understanding of both science and philosophy gives insight into the tragic delusions destroying the world. People believe that society can be saved by science, religion and politics, so I provide some suggestions as to why this is unlikely via short articles and reviews of recent books by well-known writers. It is critical to understand why we behave as we do and so the first section presents articles that try to describe (not explain as Wittgenstein insisted) behavior. I start with a brief review of the logical structure of rationality, which provides some heuristics for the description of language (mind, rationality, personality) and gives some suggestions as to how this relates to the evolution of social behavior. This centers around the two writers I have found the most important in this regard, Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle, whose ideas I combine and extend within the dual system (two ii systems of thought) framework that has proven so useful in recent thinking and reasoning research. As I note, there is in my view essentially complete overlap between philosophy, in the strict sense of the enduring questions that concern the academic discipline, and the descriptive psychology of higher order thought (behavior). Once one has grasped Wittgenstein’s insight that there is only the issue of how the language game is to be played, one determines the Conditions of Satisfaction (what makes a statement true or satisfied etc.) and that is the end of the discussion. Since philosophical problems are the result of our innate psychology, or as Wittgenstein put it, due to the lack of perspicuity of language, they run throughout human discourse and behavior, so there is endless need for philosophical analysis, not only in the ‘human sciences’ of philosophy, sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology, history, literature, religion, etc., but in the ‘hard sciences’ of physics, mathematics, and biology. It is universal to mix the language game questions with the real scientific ones as to what the empirical facts are. Scientism is ever present and the master has laid it before us long ago, i.e., Wittgenstein (hereafter W) beginning with the Blue and Brown Books in the early 1930’s. "Philosophers constantly see the method of science before their eyes and are irresistibly tempted to ask and answer questions in the way science does. This tendency is the real source of metaphysics and leads the philosopher into complete darkness." (BBB p18) The key to everything about us is biology, and it is obliviousness to it that leads millions of smart educated people like Obama, Chomsky, Clinton and the Pope to espouse suicidal utopian ideals that inexorably lead straight to Hell on Earth. As W noted, it is what is always before our eyes that is the hardest to see. We live in the world of conscious deliberative linguistic System 2, but it is unconscious, automatic reflexive System 1 that rules. This is the source of the universal blindness described by Searle’s The Phenomenological Illusion (TPI), Pinker’s Blank Slate and Tooby and Cosmides’ Standard Social Science Model. The astute may wonder why we cannot see System 1 at work, but it is clearly counterproductive for an animal to be thinking about or second guessing every action, and in any case, there is no time for the slow, massively integrated System 2 to be involved in the constant stream of split second ‘decisions’ we must make. As W noted, our ‘thoughts’ (T1 or the ‘thoughts’ of System 1) must lead directly to actions. iii It is my contention that the table of intentionality (rationality, mind, thought, language, personality etc.) that features prominently here describes more or less accurately, or at least serves as an heuristic for, how we think and behave, and so it encompasses not merely philosophy and psychology, but everything else (history, literature, mathematics, politics etc.). Note especially that intentionality and rationality as I (along with Searle, Wittgenstein and others) view it, includes both conscious deliberative System 2 and unconscious automated System 1 actions or reflexes. Thus, all the articles, like all behavior, are intimately connected if one knows how to look at them. As I note, The Phenomenological Illusion (oblivion to our automated System 1) is universal and extends not merely throughout philosophy but throughout life. I am sure that Chomsky, Obama, Zuckerberg and the Pope would be incredulous if told that they suffer from the same problem as Hegel, Husserl and Heidegger, (or that that they differ only in degree from drug and sex addicts in being motivated by stimulation of their frontal cortices by the delivery of dopamine (and over 100 other chemicals) via the ventral tegmentum and the nucleus accumbens), but it’s clearly true. While the phenomenologists only wasted a lot of people’s time, they are wasting the earth and their descendant’s futures. Many of the articles describe the ‘digital delusions’, which confuse the language games of System 2 with the automatisms of System 1, and so cannot distinguish biological machines (i.e., people) from other kinds of machines (i.e., computers). The ‘reductionist’ claim is that one can ‘explain’ behavior at a ‘lower’ level, but what actually happens is that one does not explain human behavior but a ‘stand in’ for it. Hence the title of Searle’s classic review of Dennett’s book (“Consciousness Explained”)— “Consciousness Explained Away”. In most contexts ‘reduction’ of higher level emergent behavior to brain functions, biochemistry, or physics is incoherent. Also for ‘reduction’ of chemistry or physics, the path is blocked by chaos and uncertainty. Anything can be ‘represented’ by equations, but when they ‘represent’ higher order behavior, it is not clear (and cannot be made clear) what the ‘results’ mean. Reductionist metaphysics is a joke, but most scientists and philosophers lack the appropriate sense of humor. Other digital delusions are that we will be saved from the pure evil (selfishness) of System 1 by computers/AI/robotics/ nanotech/genetic engineering created by System 2. The No Free Lunch principal tells us there will be serious and possibly fatal consequences. The adventurous may regard this principle as a higher order emergent expression of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Hi-tech enthusiasts hugely underestimate the problems iv resulting from unrestrained motherhood, and of course it is neither profitable nor politically correct (and now with third world supremacism dominant, not even possible) to be honest about it. The last section describes various versions of the ‘altruism delusion’ that we are selected for cooperation, and that the euphonious ideals of Democracy, Diversity and Equality will lead us into utopia, if we just manage things correctly (the possibility of politics). Again, the No Free Lunch Principle ought to warn us it cannot be true, and we see throughout history and all over the contemporary world, that without strict controls, selfishness and stupidity gain the upper hand and soon destroy any nation that embraces it. In addition, the monkey mind steeply discounts the future, and so we cooperate in selling our descendant’s heritage for temporary comforts, greatly exacerbating the problems. I describe versions of this delusion (i.e., that we are basically ‘friendly’ if just given a chance) as it appears in some recent books on sociology/biology/economics. I end with an essay on the great tragedy playing out in America and the world, which can be seen as a direct result of our evolved psychology manifested as the inexorable machinations of System 1. Our psychology, eminently adaptive and eugenic on the plains of Africa from ca. 6 million years ago, when we split from chimpanzees, to ca. 50,000 years ago, when many of our ancestors left Africa (i.e., in the EEA or Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation), is now maladaptive and dysgenic and the source of our Suicidal Utopian Delusions. So, like all discussions of behavior (philosophy, psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology, politics, law, literature, history, economics, soccer strategies, business meetings, etc.), this book is about evolutionary strategies, selfish genes and inclusive fitness (kin selection). Many accept the delusion that we are selected for cooperation with people generally (group selection or altruism) and not just our immediate relatives (kin selection or inclusive fitness), so I spend some time in the essays of the last section demolishing this fantasy. One thing rarely mentioned by the group selectionists is the fact that, even were ‘group selection’ possible, selfishness is at least as likely (probably far more likely in most contexts) to be group selected for as altruism. Just try to find examples of true altruism in nature –the fact that we can’t (which we know is not possible if we understand evolution) tells us that its apparent presence in humans is an artefact of modern life concealing the facts, and that it can no more be selected for than the tendency to suicide (which in fact it is). One does not really need science or mathematics to grasp this – it is crushingly obvious that an v organism cannot be selected for behavior that decreases the frequency of its own genes in the next generation. One might also benefit from considering a phenomenon never (in my experience) mentioned by group selectionists -- cancer. No group has as much in common as the (originally) genetically identical cells in our own bodies-a 100 trillion cell clone-- but we are all born with thousands and perhaps millions of cells that have already taken the first step on the path to cancer and generate millions to billions of cancer cells in our life. If we did not die of other things first, we (and perhaps all multicellular organisms) would all die of cancer. Only a massive and hugely complex mechanism built into our genome that represses or derepresses trillions of genes in trillions of cells, and kills and creates billions of cells a second, keeps the majority of us alive long enough to reproduce. One might take this to imply that a just, democratic and enduring society for any kind of entity on any planet in any universe is only a dream, and that no being or power could make it otherwise. It is not only ‘the laws’ of physics that are universal and inescapable, or perhaps we should say that inclusive fitness is a law of physics. The great mystic Osho said that the separation of God and Heaven from Earth and Humankind was the most evil idea that ever entered the Human mind. In the 20th century an even more evil notion arose—that humans are born with rights, rather than having to earn privileges. Thus, every day the population increases by 200,000, who must be provided with resources to grow and space to live, and who soon produce another 200,000 etc. And one almost never hears it noted that what they receive must be taken from those already alive. Their lives diminish those already here in both major obvious and countless subtle ways. Every new baby destroys the earth from the moment of conception. There cannot be human rights without human wrongs. It cannot be more obvious, but one will never see the streets full of protesters against motherhood. America and the world are in the process of collapse from excessive population growth, most of it for the last century and now all of it due to 3rd world people. Consumption of resources and the addition of 4 billion more ca. 2100 will collapse industrial civilization and bring about starvation, disease, violence and war on a staggering scale. The earth loses about 2% of it’s topsoil every year, so as it nears 2100, most of it’s food growing capacity will be gone. Billions will die and nuclear war is all but certain. In America, this is being hugely accelerated by massive immigration and immigrant reproduction, combined with abuses made possible by democracy. Depraved human nature inexorably turns the dream of democracy and diversity into a vi nightmare of crime and poverty. China will continue to overwhelm America and the world, as long as it maintains the dictatorship which limits selfishness. The root cause of collapse is the inability of our innate psychology to adapt to the modern world, which leads people to treat unrelated persons as though they had common interests. This, plus ignorance of basic biology and psychology, leads to the social engineering delusions of the partially educated who control democratic societies. Few understand that if you help one person you harm someone else—there is no free lunch and every single item anyone consumes destroys the earth beyond repair. Consequently, social policies everywhere are unsustainable and one by one all societies without stringent controls on selfishness will collapse into anarchy or dictatorship. Without dramatic and immediate changes, there is no hope for preventing the collapse of America, or any country that follows a democratic system. The popular notions supported by the Democratic Party and Third World Supremacists are that Democracy, Diversity, Equality and Social Justice will produce a Utopia in America and the world, but it is clear as crystal that they unavoidably foster selfishness and divisiveness and are producing collapse. Hence my concluding essay “Suicide by Democracy”. The most basic facts, almost never mentioned, are that there are not enough resources in America or the world to lift a significant percentage of the poor out of poverty and keep them there. Even the attempt to do this is already bankrupting America and destroying the world. The earth’s capacity to produce food decreases daily, as does our genetic quality. And now, as always, by far the greatest enemy of the poor is other poor and not the rich. -/- My writings are available as paperbacks and Kindles on Amazon. -/- Talking Monkeys: Philosophy, Psychology, Science, Religion and Politics on a Doomed Planet - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) ASIN B071HVC7YP. -/- The Logical Structure of Philosophy, Psychology, Mind and Language in Ludwig Wittgenstein and John Searle--Articles and Reviews 2006-2016 (2017) ASIN B071P1RP1B. -/- Suicidal Utopian Delusions in the 21st century: Philosophy, Human Nature and the Collapse of Civilization - Articles and Reviews 2006-2017 (2017) 2nd printing with corrections (Feb 2018) ASIN B0711R5LGX -/- Suicide by Democracy: an Obituary for America and the World (2018) ASIN B07CQVWV9C -/- . (shrink)

Difference and Repetition: Deleuze’s magnum opus, “Difference and Repetition” (1968), explores the interplay between difference and repetition. He argues that difference is fundamental to reality, and repetition is not mere duplication but a creative force. Deleuze challenges conventional notions of identity and sameness, emphasizing the productive potential of difference. Gilles Deleuze’s “Difference and Repetition” is a seminal work that challenges traditional Western metaphysics and offers a fresh perspective on concepts like identity, repetition, and creativity. Let’s explore some key ideas from (...) this remarkable book: Pure Difference: Deleuze argues that difference is fundamental to reality. Unlike classical philosophy that seeks universal truths, he emphasizes divergence and decentering. Each moment contains unique differences, and these differences shape our understanding of the world. Complex Repetition: Repetition, for Deleuze, isn’t mere duplication. Instead, it involves displacement and disguising. While repetition contributes to generality and thought, it’s the differences within each repetition that account for change and novelty. Concepts and things derive meaning from these differences. Shift Away from Hegel and Marx: “Difference and Repetition” played a crucial role in shifting French thought away from Hegel and Marx toward Nietzsche and Freud. Deleuze’s exploration of difference challenged established philosophical norms and paved the way for new perspectives. The Image of Thought: Deleuze critiques the traditional “image of thought,” which often relies on fixed identities and binary oppositions. Instead, he encourages us to embrace multiplicities, complexities, and the perpetual process of becoming. Asymmetrical Synthesis of the Sensible: Deleuze introduces the concept of asymmetrical synthesis, emphasizing the interplay between perception and affect. Reality is a dynamic, ever-changing process, not a static being. Copies are never identical; they’re something new. “Difference and Repetition” invites us to rethink how we perceive reality, emphasizing creativity, multiplicity, and the constant flux of existence. Deleuze’s work continues to inspire thinkers across disciplines, bridging philosophy with art, literature, and mysticism. (shrink)

Przed skomentowaniem książki, oferuję uwagi na temat Wittgenstein i Searle i logicznej struktury racjonalności. Eseje tutaj są w większości już opublikowane w ciągu ostatniej dekady (choć niektóre zostały zaktualizowane), wraz z jednym niepublikowanym elementem, i nic tutaj nie będzie zaskoczeniem dla tych, którzy nadążyli za jego pracą. Podobnie jak W, jest uważany za najlepszego filozofa standupu swoich czasów, a jego twórczość pisemna jest solidna jak skała i przełomowa w całym. Jednak jego brak podjęcia później W wystarczająco poważnie prowadzi do pewnych (...) błędów i zamieszania. Tylko kilka przykładów: na p7 dwukrotnie zauważa, że nasza pewność co do podstawowych faktów wynika z przytłaczającej wagi rozumu na poparcie naszych roszczeń, ale W pokazał definitywnie w "Na pewności", że nie ma możliwości wątpliwości co do prawdziwej tylko aksjomatycznej struktury naszego systemu 1 postrzegania, wspomnień i myśli, ponieważ sam w sobie jest podstawą do osądu i nie może być osądzony. W pierwszym zdaniu na p8 mówi nam, że pewność jest re prostu, ale tego rodzaju "pewność", którą moglibyśmy nazwać Certainty2, jest wynikiem rozszerzenia naszej aksjomatycznej i niepodróżnej pewności (Pewność1) poprzez doświadczenie i jest zupełnie inna, ponieważ jest propositional (prawda lub fałsz). Jest to oczywiście klasyczny przykład "walki z urzekaniem naszej inteligencji przez język", którą W wielokrotnie demonstrował. Jedno słowo- dwa (lub wiele) różnych zastosowań. Jego ostatni rozdział "Jedność propozycji" (wcześniej niepublikowane) również skorzystają znacznie z czytania W "Na pewność" lub dwóch książek DMS na OC (patrz moje recenzje), ponieważ jasno różnica między prawdziwymi tylko zdania opisujące S1 i prawdziwe lub fałszywe propozycje opisujące S2. To uderza mnie jako znacznie lepsze podejście do S biorąc S1 postrzegania jako propositional ponieważ tylko się T lub F po raz zaczyna myśleć o nich w S2. Jednak jego punkt, że propozycje pozwalają na oświadczenia rzeczywistej lub potencjalnej prawdy i fałszu, przeszłości i przyszłości i fantazji, a tym samym stanowić ogromny postęp w stosunku do społeczeństwa pre lub protolinguistic, jest przekonujący. Jak mówi: "Propozycja jest w ogóle czymś, co może określić warunek satysfakcji... i warunek satysfakcji... jest to, że tak i tak jest." Lub, trzeba dodać, że może być lub może być lub może być wyobrażane, że tak jest. -/- Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, PNC jest dobrym podsumowaniem wielu znaczących postępów w Wittgenstein wynikających z pół wieku pracy S, ale moim zdaniem, W nadal jest niezrównany, gdy uchwycić, co mówi. Idealnie, powinny być czytane razem: Searle dla jasnej prozy spójne i uogólnienia, zilustrowane perspicacious przykłady W i genialny aforyzmów. Gdybym był dużo młodszy, napisałbym książkę, która właśnie to robi. -/- Ci, którzy chcą kompleksowych, aktualnych ram dla ludzkich zachowań z nowoczesnego widoku dwóch systems, mogą zapoznać sięz moją książką "Logiczna struktura filozofii, psychologii, mind ijęzyka w Ludwig wittgenstein i John Searle' 2nd ed (2019). Osoby zainteresowane bardziej moimi pismami mogą zobaczyć "Talking Monkeys - Filozofia, Psychologia, Nauka, Religia i Polityka na Skazanej Planecie - Artykuły i recenzje 2006-2019 3rd ed (2019) i Suicidal Utopian Urojenia w 21wieku 4th th ed (2019) i inne. (shrink)

The objective of the paper is the methodological presentation of the basic principles towards a critical interdisciplinary approach for studying the history of monuments restoration, valid for different cultures. The proposed integrated framework offers the possibility to study and document monuments restoration in various spatial levels e.g. global, continental, international, national, regional, and local. The conceptual and methodological aspects are based on the following fundamental pillars a) the development of science and technology, including relevant history of education, b) the evolution (...) of the restoration philosophy, c) the incorporation of the above in restoration projects at a lower level, d) the infiltration of the above in restoration interventions at the lowest level. The author expects that the above successive and/or parallel levels of scientific branches can contribute effectively to the analysis, synthesis and comparative assessment of the aspects and criteria that influenced monuments restoration timeline. The challenge for the researcher of the monuments restoration history is the adjustment of the whole process to his own –under research- level in such a way as to take advantage of all theinterdisciplinary inputs creating, thus, inventive links and stimulating new information and knowledge. The above are briefly tested in the case study of Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece. Such an inductive approach will enable all disciplines to devote their finest efforts towards understanding, documenting and studying monuments restoration history and, thus, support effectively a sustainable future for the world’s cultural heritagel audience. (shrink)

It is expected that industrial heritage actually tells the story of the emerging capitalism highlighting the dynamic social relationship between the “workers” and the owners of the “production means”. In current times of economic crisis, it may even involve a painful past with lost social, civil, gender and/or class struggles, a depressing present with abandoned, fragmented, degraded landscapes and ravaged factories, and a hopeless future for the former workers of the local (not only) society; or just a conquerable ground for (...) controversial investments. This is certainly an emotionally charged subject matter, with multiple readings and interpretations. However, this view is only partial when facing landscape during its historical evolution process. A diachronic study, thus, embraces all resources that probably gave rise to a variety of human activities; all of them embody heritage values -“subjectively” or “objectively” perceived- their evaluation, though, is a matter of an on-going process of the civil society. Greece's landscape accommodates a diversity of diachronic productive practices that may overlap historical periods, technological evolutions and social transformations. Pre-, early and industrial exploitation of resources does not remain firm but vary according to time and the needs of each society. The comparative scale of certain resource exploitation is highlighted as the key for the assessment methodology in close relation to the specific frame of a local landscape and a historical period. Even though archaeological evidence may possibly reveal and document continuity in a range of sustainable productive processes without conflicts, great controversies emerge when new investments are “offered” as an antidote to economic crisis -not harmonized to the local scale, traumatizing thus the “spirit” of the landscape. Suggestions for incompatible productive use and investment planning imply irreversible and irreparable effects on the environment, society and economy of a region and are only faced through social awareness. Case studies of passive and/or active involvement of local communities, in synthesizing and enhance landscape’s “spirit”, its diachronic industrial heritage and the embedded tangible and intangible values, will support a pragmatic -not a suspended- step towards a sustainable future. Quoting Neil Cossons (TICCIH Congress 2012) “Industrial imperialism ensures its position and protects its future not by the conquest of distant lands as by the securing of its sources of raw materials ... The modern world is as much under the control of the major industrial powers as it ever was during the colonial era”; if such a case can the industrial heritage sector remain apolitical? (shrink)

Η εύληπτη εκπαιδευτική προσέγγιση ότι «κληρονομιά είναι οτιδήποτε θέλεις “εσύ” να διατηρηθεί για τις επόμενες γενιές» κλονίζεται στην ερώτηση «όλα όσα μας παραδίδονται από τους προγόνους μας αποτελούν μια προς διαφύλαξη κληρονομιά, εφόσον “εσύ” το αποφασίσεις;». Εκφάνσεις «βαρβαρότητας» που διασώζονται σε προγενέστερες εθιμικές πρακτικές θα μπορούσαν άραγε να αποτελέσουν στοιχεία ΑΠΚ προς διαφύλαξη; Η παρούσα εργασία επιχειρεί μια πρώτη ανίχνευση του σύνθετου αυτού θέματος. Περιπτώσεις μελέτης από τον ελληνικό και διεθνή χώρο διερευνώνται με κριτήρια αξιολόγησης τα αναφερόμενα στη Σύμβαση για (...) τη Διαφύλαξη της ΑΠΚ (UNESCO, 2003). Βάσει αυτών δεν γίνονται αποδεκτές εθιμικές πρακτικές ΑΠΚ που αναζωπυρώνουν μνήμες βίαιων συγκρούσεων μεταξύ μελών κοινότητας/κοινοτήτων, αποκλείουν με βίαιο ή/και υποτιμητικό τρόπο μέλη εξαιτίας του φύλου, της ηλικίας, της επαγγελματικής ιδιότητας, ή του σεξουαλικού τους προσανατολισμού, καθώς και εθιμικές πρακτικές που περιλαμβάνουν κακομεταχείριση ή/και βασανισμό ζώων. Η εφαρμογή των παραπάνω στην πράξη παραμένει αχαρτογράφητο πεδίο. Απαραίτητες φάσεις μιας συστηματικής μελέτης αποτελούν α) η αναγνώριση και η ευαισθητοποίηση των τοπικών κοινωνιών και του ευρύτερου κοινωνικού συνόλου για τις αξίες της ΑΠΚ, β) η έρευνα, τεκμηρίωση και αξιολόγηση των επιμέρους στοιχείων της, γ) η υποστήριξη των διαδικασιών μεταβίβασής της στις νεότερες γενιές, μέσω της τυπικής και μη εκπαίδευσης, δ) η ανάδειξη της σημασίας της σε τοπική, περιφερειακή, εθνική ή/και παγκόσμια κλίμακα. Η ΑΠΚ μετεξελίσσεται και μεθερμηνεύεται διαρκώς μέσω σύνθετων κοινωνικών και πολιτισμικών διεργασιών. Απόπειρες εξαναγκασμένης «αναβίωσης» κάποιας «αυθεντικής» ή «γνήσιας» μορφής μιας έκφανσής της συχνά αποτυγχάνουν, ενώ παραμένουν μεθοδολογικά μετέωρες. Ο ρόλος της εκπαιδευτικής διαδικασίας στην ανάπτυξη σχετικών ηθικών αρχών και κριτικής σκέψης είναι κρίσιμης σημασίας. Λέξεις κλειδιά: άυλη πολιτιστική κληρονομιά, κοινότητες, αξίες, ηθικές αρχές, εκπαίδευση For educational purposes, we may claim that heritage is whatever each one of us individually or collectively wishes to preserve and pass on to the next generation. However, should violent or other disturbing forms of expression, preserved in customary practices, be safeguarded, if the whole or part of the ‘community’ decides to do so? The present paper attempts a first approach to this complex issue. Case studies from Greece and worldwide are investigated and appraised on the basis of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the ICH (UNESCO, 2003). According to the Convention criteria, customary practices that refresh memories of violent conflicts between members of the community/communities, or exclude members with an aggressive and pejorative way because of their gender, age, professional status or sexual orientation, as well as practices involving the ill-treatment and/or torture of animals do not deserve safeguarding. The implementation of the above criteria in practice, however, remains an uncharted area. A systematic study, therefore, should: (a) include initiation, recognition and awareness on the part of local communities and societies about the values of the ICH; (b) promote research, documentation and evaluation of heritage components; (c) support the transition to the younger generations through formal and non-formal educational events; (d) highlight its importance on the local, regional, national and international context. ICH is evolving and constantly interpreted through complex social and cultural processes. Any forced attempt to revive an ‘authentic’ or ‘genuine’ version of ICH cultural expression, besides appearing fake, is methodologically challenged. The role of education in developing ethical principles and a critical approach to heritage is undoubtedly crucial. Keywords: Intangible cultural heritage, communities, values, ethical principles, education. (shrink)

Lewisian Genuine Realism about possible worlds is often deemed unable to accommodate impossible worlds and reap the benefits that these bestow to rival theories. This thesis explores two alternative extensions of GR into the terrain of impossible worlds. It is divided in six chapters. Chapter I outlines Lewis’ theory, the motivations for impossible worlds, and the central problem that such worlds present for GR: How can GR even understand the notion of an impossible world, given Lewis’ reductive theoretical framework? Since (...) the desideratum is to incorporate impossible worlds into GR without compromising Lewis’ reductive analysis of modality, Chapter II defends that analysis against objections. The rest of the thesis is devoted to incorporating impossible worlds into GR. Chapter III explores GR-friendly impossible worlds in the form of set-theoretic constructions out of genuine possibilia. Then, Chapters IV-VI venture into concrete impossible worlds. Chapter IV addresses Lewis’ objection against such worlds, to the effect that contradictions true at impossible worlds amount to true contradictions tout court. I argue that even if so, the relevant contradictions are only ever about the non-actual, and that Lewis’ argument relies on a premise that cannot be nonquestion- beggingly upheld in the face of genuine impossible worlds in any case. Chapter V proposes that Lewis’ reductive analysis can be preserved, even in the face of genuine impossibilia, if we differentiate the impossible from the possible by means of accessibility relations, understood non-modally in terms of similarity. Finally, Chapter VI counters objections to the effect that there are certain impossibilities, formulated in Lewis’ theoretical language, which genuine impossibilia should, but cannot, represent. I conclude that Genuine Realism is still very much in the running when the discussion turns to impossible worlds. (shrink)

Vocal fry is a phonation, or voicing, in which an individual drops their voice below its natural register and consequently emits a low, growly, creaky tone of voice. Media outlets have widely acknowledged it as a generational vocal style characteristic of millennial women. Critics of vocal fry often claim that it is an exclusively female vocal pattern, and some say that the voicing is so distracting that they cannot understand what is being said under the phonation. Claiming that a phonation (...) is so distracting as to prevent uptake of the semantic content of an utterance associated with it is an extreme reaction, especially when accompanied by demands for women to change their phonation. We argue that this reaction limits women's communicative autonomy. We analyze the extreme reaction to female vocal fry, which we characterize as a non-content-based response, from the perspectives of philosophy of language, feminist epistemology, and linguistics. We argue that when fry is heard as annoying and distracting, it is because the hearer interprets the speaker as echoing an utterance from a position of authority to which she is not entitled. We show that this reaction encodes conscious or unconscious sexist attitudes toward women's voices. (shrink)

Đám học trò xóm chim gật gù, ra vẻ đăm chiêu lắm, nhưng thực chả hiểu ra làm sao. Chuyện xóm xưa nay vẫn vận, kệ thôi...

Dạo gần đây mưa nhiều, cây cối tốt tươi, cá tôm đầy ao. Chim ở các nơi tấp nập kéo đến sinh sống.

Kit Fine (2000) breaks with tradition, arguing that, pace Russell (e.g., 1903: 228), relations have neither directions nor converses. He considers two ways to conceive of these new "neutral" relations, positionalism and anti-positionalism, and argues that the latter should be preferred to the former. Cody Gilmore (2013) argues for a generalization of positionalism, slot theory, the view that a property or relation is n-adic if and only if there are exactly n slots in it, and (very roughly) that each slot (...) may be occupied by at most one entity. Slot theory (and with it, positionalism) bears the full brunt of Fine's (2000) symmetric completions and conflicting adicities problems. I fully develop an alternative, plural slot theory (or pocket theory), which avoids these problems, key elements of which are first considered by Yi (1999: 168 ff.). Like the slot theorist, the pocket theorist posits entities (pockets) in properties and relations that can be occupied. But unlike the slot theorist, the pocket theorist denies that at most one entity can occupy any one of them. As a result, she must also deny that the adicity of a property or relation is equal to the number of occupiable entities in it. By abandoning these theses, however, the pocket theorist is able to avoid Fine's problems, resulting in a stronger theory about the internal structure of properties and relations. Pocket theory also avoids a serious drawback of anti-positionalism. (shrink)

Can an ugly experiment be a good experiment? Philosophers have identified many beautiful experiments and explored ways in which their beauty might be connected to their epistemic value. In contrast, the present chapter seeks out (and celebrates) ugly experiments. Among the ugliest are those being designed by AI algorithms. Interestingly, in the contexts where such experiments tend to be deployed, low aesthetic value correlates with high epistemic value. In other words, ugly experiments can be good. Given this, we should conclude (...) that beauty is not generally necessary or sufficient for epistemic value, and increasing beauty will not generally tend to increase epistemic value. (shrink)

Dieser Artikel enthält eine kritische Diskussion der von Peter Stemmer in seinem Buch "Normativität. Eine ontologische Untersuchung" vorgelegten Analyse von Normativität. Zentraler Kritikpunkt ist der Umstand, dass der für Stemmers Analyse zentrale Begriff des Wollens unanalysiert bleibt, sich dieses jedoch, so das hier vorgestellte Argument, entweder in einer Weise analysieren lassen wird, die, als Tendenz gedeutet, weniger zu leisten vermag als Stemmer für seine Analyse benötigt, oder, als intentionaler Zustand gedeutet, selbst bereits Normativität voraussetzt und somit für Stemmers reduktive Analyse (...) von Normativität nicht geeignet ist. Gegen Ende des Aufsatzes wird eine pragmatistische Fundierung von Normativität angedeutet und verschiedene Ressourcen aufgezeigt, deren sich Stemmer bedienen könnte, um seine Position gegen die vorgebrachten Einwände zu verteidigen. (shrink)

A number of philosophers think that grounding is, in some sense, well-founded. This thesis, however, is not always articulated precisely, nor is there a consensus in the literature as to how it should be characterized. In what follows, I consider several principles that one might have in mind when asserting that grounding is well-founded, and I argue that one of these principles, which I call ‘full foundations’, best captures the relevant claim. My argument is by the process of elimination. For (...) each of the inadequate principles, I illustrate its inadequacy by showing either that it excludes cases that should not be ruled out by a well-foundedness axiom for grounding, or that it admits cases that should be ruled out. (shrink)

Tennenbaum's Theorem yields an elegant characterisation of the standard model of arithmetic. Several authors have recently claimed that this result has important philosophical consequences: in particular, it offers us a way of responding to model-theoretic worries about how we manage to grasp the standard model. We disagree. If there ever was such a problem about how we come to grasp the standard model, then Tennenbaum's Theorem does not help. We show this by examining a parallel argument, from a simpler model-theoretic (...) result. (shrink)

The COVID-19 crisis has highlighted the considerable challenge of sourcing expertise and determining which experts to trust. Dissonant information fostered controversy in public discourse and encouraged an appeal to a wide range of social indicators of trustworthiness in order to decide whom to trust. We analyze public discourse on expertise by examining how social indicators inform the reputation of Dr. Didier Raoult, the French microbiologist who rose to international prominence as an early advocate for using hydroxychloroquine to treat COVID-19. To (...) comprehend how these indicators came to inform his reputation, we outline Dr. Raoult's rise to fame based on discourse about hydroxychloroquine. We then discuss why we trust in experts like scientist-practitioners. This is followed by an examination of how social indicators of trust like status, epistemic authority, influence and values have informed Dr. Raoult's reputation. We conclude with recommendations for how to improve the selection and evaluation social indicators of trust and reputations. Our aim here, instead of making a claim about the efficacy of hydroxychloroquine or Dr. Raoult's reputation per se, is to outline through this case study how social indicators of trust inform reputation and the challenge they present to evaluating expertise. (shrink)

The growing power of communication and information technologies and their reliance on systems, poses great challenges to cultural and religious diversity, and even education. Will these technological systems continue to homogenize cultures and religions? Will this process lead to increasing strife? Or is there a possibility of maintaining both identity and diversity in a peaceful manner? This paper explores an early attempt to consider this problem. It will focus on the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā and their attempt to construct an encyclopedic system (...) to coordinate knowledge during the flowering of Islamic Civilization in the tenth century. It will primarily deal with Epistle or Rasā'il twenty-two – a fable concerning a debate between the humans, the animals and the Jinn. It will discuss their debate and show how the major concern for the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā was not only to embrace the diversity of knowledge but also the need to navigate through this diversity. I would like to suggest through this analysis that a culture gains its richness and identity by recognizing perfections outside of their own identity. This is analogous to the way that the individual human being gains meaning and dignity by reaching beyond its individuality. It also shows the importance of cultural and religious diversity and how the world cannot be unified by a single all-encompassing system. This approach is important because it shows the possibility of maintaining cultural and religious identity while participating in a technological world involving the flow of information on one hand, and global cultural diversities on the other. (shrink)

Once one accepts that certain things metaphysically depend upon, or are metaphysically explained by, other things, it is natural to begin to wonder whether these chains of dependence or explanation must come to an end. This essay surveys the work that has been done on this issue—the issue of grounding and infinite descent. I frame the discussion around two questions: (1) What is infinite descent of ground? and (2) Is infinite descent of ground possible? In addressing the second question, I (...) will consider a number of arguments that have been made for and against the possibility of infinite descent of ground. When relevant, I connect the discussion to two important views about the way reality can be structured by grounding: metaphysical foundationalism and metaphysical infinitism. (shrink)

Within contemporary philosophical theology the doctrine of divine simplicity has regained attention. There are several new defenses of simplicity in the literature. One of the more surprising, and troubling, aspects of the contemporary defenses amongst Christian philosophers and theologians is a seeming lack of understanding about how radical the doctrine of divine simplicity truly is. As such, I wish to do a few things in this paper. First, systematically articulate the doctrine of divine simplicity. Second, argue that divine simplicity is (...) not a possible perfection. Third, offer some concluding remarks and remaining issues that will need to be sorted out for the debate over simplicity to continue. (shrink)

Whether the hands-on experience of creating inventions can promote Students’ interest in pursuing a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) career has not been extensively studied. In a quantitative study, we drew on the attitude-behavior-outcome framework to explore the correlates between hands-on making attitude, epistemic curiosities, and career interest. This study targeted students who joined the selection competition for participating in the International Exhibition of Young Inventors (IEYI) in Taiwan. The objective of the invention exhibition is to encourage young students (...) to make innovative projects by applying STEM knowledge and collaborative design. We collected 220 valid data from participants in the 2021 Taiwan IEYI selection competition and conducted a confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling to test the hypotheses. Results indicated that: (1) hands-on making attitude was positively related to two types of epistemic curiosity; (2) interest-type epistemic curiosity (IEC) and deprivation-type epistemic curiosity (DEC) were positively associated with STEM career interest; additionally, DEC had a higher coefficient on STEM career interest than IEC; (3) both types of EC had a mediating role between hands-on making attitude and STEM career interest. It is expected that encouraging students to participate in invention exhibition competitions can raise both types of EC and increase their interest in pursuing STEM careers. (shrink)

Maureen Donnelly’s (2016) relative positionalism correctly handles any fixed arity relation with any symmetry such a relation can have, yielding the intuitively correct way(s) in which that relation can apply. And it supplies an explanation of what is going on in the world that makes this the case. But it has at least one potential shortcoming — one that its opponents are likely to seize upon: it can only handle relations with fixed arities. It is unable to handle relations with (...) variable arities. I argue that, all else being equal, relative positionalism ought nonetheless to be preferred to its closest competitors — at least to the extent that the explanation it supplies of relational application is plausible — even though those competitors can handle variable arity relations in addition to fixed arity relations. (shrink)

In this article, I suggest that combining resources from philosophy and psychology can yield useful tools for philosophical counselling. More specifically, I argue for three theses: a) Iris Murdoch’s notion of just attention and Marshall Rosenberg’s method of non-violent communication are interestingly compatible; b) engaging in non-violent communication serves to support one’s endeavors to acquire the kind of clear vision Murdoch thinks doing well by others requires; and c) non-violent just communication would be beneficial to both counsellors and counselees and (...) thus a useful resource for philosophical counsellors. (shrink)

Summary: Throughout the history of science, indeed throughout the history of knowledge, unification has been touted as a central aim of intellectual inquiry. We’ve always wanted to discover not only numerous bare facts about the universe, but to show how such facts are linked and interrelated. Large amounts of time and effort have been spent trying to show diverse arrays of things can be seen as different manifestations of some common underlying entities or properties. Thales is said to have originated (...) philosophy and science with his declaration that everything was, at base, a form of water. Plato’s theory of the forms was thought to be a magnificent accomplishment because it gave a unified solution to the separate problems of the relation between knowledge and belief, the grounding of objective values, and how continuity is possible amid change. Pasteur made numerous medical advancements possible by demonstrating the interconnection between microorganisms and human disease symptoms. Many technological advances were aided by Maxwell’s showing that light is a kind of electromagnetic radiation. The attempt to unify the various known forces is often referred to as “The Holy Grail” of physics. Some philosophers have even suggested that providing explanations is itself just a sort of unifying of our knowledge. But while unification (like simplicity) has often been hailed as a tremendous virtue in science, the meaning of the term is not altogether clear. Scientists often don’t specify what, precisely, they mean by unification. And in cases where what they mean is clear, different thinkers plainly mean different things by the term. What are the various senses of unification, and why has unification been such an important aim in the history of inquiry? (shrink)

Resumo: Neste texto, introduzo algumas questões importantes que fazem parte do debate sobre infiltração pragmática. Além de apresentar e problematizar as principais alegações oferecidas pelos proponentes da infiltração pragmática eu irei contrasta-la com algumas teses mais tradicionais, como a Tese Tradicional sobre o Conhecimento e o Contextualismo Epistêmico. Por fim, apresento uma crítica aos proponentes da infiltração pragmática que parece ainda não ter sido tratada. Concluo que embora controversa, tal tese está longe de ser refutada completamente. Palavras-chave: Conhecimento; Contexto; Justificação; (...) Padrões; Infiltração prática. -/- Abstract: In this paper I introduce some central aspects concerning the debate on pragmatic encroachment. After introducing and discussing the main arguments offered by the pragmatic encroachers advocates I will contrast it with more traditional theses such as the Traditional Analysis of Knowledge and Epistemic Contextualism. Finally, I present an objection to the pragmatic encroachment approach that haven't been treated yet. I conclude that despite its difficulties, the pragmatic encroachment view is far from being refuted. Keywords: Knowledge; Context; Justification; Standards; Pragmatic encroachment. (shrink)

One of the main contentions of the framework for Responsible Innovation (RI) is that social and ethical aspects have to be addressed by deliberative engagement with stakeholders and the wider public throughout the innovation process. The aim of this article is to reflect on the question to what extent is deliberative engagement suitable for conducting RI in business. We discuss several tensions that arise when this framework is applied in the business context. Further, we analyse the place of deliberative engagement (...) in several theories of business ethics. We conclude that there remains a tension between the ideal of RI and the way in which the competitive market operates. Hence, RI scholars should reflect more critically on changes that are required in the market in order to make RI possible, modify the ideal of deliberative engagement for RI in business, or attempt to strike a balance between these two responses. (shrink)

According to classical theism, impassibility is said to be systematically connected to divine attributes like timelessness, immutability, simplicity, aseity, and self-sufficiency. In some interesting way, these attributes are meant to explain why the impassible God cannot suffer. I shall argue that these attributes do not explain why the impassible God cannot suffer. In order to understand why the impassible God cannot suffer, one must examine the emotional life of the impassible God. I shall argue that the necessarily happy emotional life (...) of the classical God explains why the impassible God cannot suffer. (shrink)

Replacing the value-free ideal (VFI) for science requires attention to the broader understanding of how science in society should function. In public spaces, science needed to project the VFI in norms for science advising, science education, and science communication. This resulted in the independent science advisor model and a focus on science literacy for science education and communication. Attending to these broader implications of the VFI which structure science and society relationships is crucial if we are to properly replace the (...) VFI with a better ideal. (shrink)

Many pantheists have claimed that their view of the divine is motivated by a kind of spiritual experience. In this paper, I articulate a novel argument, inspired by recent work on moral exemplarism, that gives voice to this kind of motivation for pantheism. The argument is based on two claims about the emotion of awe, each of which is defended primarily via critical engagement with empirical research on the emotion. I also illustrate how this pathway to pantheism offers pantheists distinctive (...) resources for responding to persistent objections to their view, and how it might lead to more exotic views incorporating pantheistic elements. (shrink)

(1 ∼ 4)The place of consciousness in nature; (5 ∼ 9) hard problem, Multiple Draft Model, Orch OR theory; (10 ∼ 11) space-time field; (12 ∼ 13)methodology; (14 ∼ 17)application of physio-phenomenology; (18) on electroencephalography signals; (19 ∼ 23) mental imagery; (24 ∼ 26) pandemonium process and hallucinations; (27 ∼ 30) awareness and attention; (31) measurement problem; (32 ∼ 33) futureworks; (34) Summary.

Speaks defends the view that propositions are properties: for example, the proposition that grass is green is the property being such that grass is green. We argue that there is no reason to prefer Speaks's theory to analogous but competing theories that identify propositions with, say, 2-adic relations. This style of argument has recently been deployed by many, including Moore and King, against the view that propositions are n-tuples, and by Caplan and Tillman against King's view that propositions are facts (...) of a special sort. We offer our argument as an objection to the view that propositions are unsaturated relations. (shrink)

This article introduces the notion of duplex elements of the finite rings and corresponding neutrosophic rings. The authors establish duplex ring Dup(R) and neutrosophic duplex ring Dup(R)I)) by way of various illustrations. The tables of different duplicities are constructed to reveal the comparison between rings Dup(Zn), Dup(Dup(Zn)) and Dup(Dup(Dup(Zn ))) for the cyclic ring Zn . The proposed duplicity structures have several algebraic systems with dissimilar consequences. Author’s characterize finite rings with R + R is different from the duplex ring (...) Dup(R). However, this characterization supports that R + R = Dup(R) for some well known rings, namely zero rings and finite fields. (shrink)

John Taurek has argued that, where choices must be made between alternatives that affect different numbers of people, the numbers are not, by themselves, morally relevant. This is because we "must" take "losses-to" the persons into account (and these don't sum), but "must not" consider "losses-of" persons (because we must not treat persons like objects). I argue that the numbers are always ethically relevant, and that they may sometimes be the decisive consideration.